Occupational and Health Hazards, and Compliance with Traffic Regulations amongst Bodaboda Riders

Nyamira E. N 1✉ Phone+254718609708 Emailenocknyamira2@gmail.com

Ogendi G. M 1,2

N Waweru 2

Kabaya S. M 1

Makokha N. N 1

Ratemo C.M. 1

1 Department of Environmental Science Egerton University Box 536 Egerton Kenya

2 Dryland Research Training & Ecotourism Centre Box 536 Chemeron, Egerton Kenya

Global Environmental Studies Program Sophia University Japan

Nyamira E. N ^ɸ1,,Ogendi G. M^{1, 2} _,Waweru N², Kabaya S. M¹, Makokha N. N¹ _& Ratemo C.M.³

^{ɸ 1} Department of Environmental Science, Egerton University, Box 536 Egerton, Kenya

² Dryland Research Training & Ecotourism Centre, Chemeron, Box 536 Egerton, Kenya

³ Global Environmental Studies Program, Sophia University, Japan

^ɸ Corresponding Email Address: enocknyamira2@gmail.com; Cellphone + 254718609708

Abstract

Occupational health and safety is a major global concern due to high morbidity and fatalities in the transportation sector, particularly in Sub-Saharan countries. Whereas poor road conditions and signage are often cited, studies show that human error and poorly maintained vehicles and motorbikes significantly contribute to the thousands of annual road accident deaths and injuries. Failure to obey traffic rules by boda-boda riders also contributes to these accidents. In light of these issues, this study was undertaken to understand the occupational and health hazards, and compliance with National Transport and Safety Authority (NTSA) traffic regulations amongst boda-boda riders. Our study focused on (i) compliance amongst boda-boda riders with occupational requirements; (ii) occupational hazards facing the riders; (iii) compliance with traffic regulations; and (iv) the relationship between compliance with traffic regulations and accidents involving boda-boda riders. Egerton University was the study site, targeting all boda-boda riders on routes to and from the campus. This study used a cross-sectional survey design with stratified random sampling to select riders. The data collection methods included focus group discussion, observation schedules, semi-structured questionnaires, and key informant interviews. Ethical clearance was obtained from the relevant institutions. Analysis included descriptive and inferential statistics.

Findings showed that nearly 80% of riders did not comply with boda-boda operation rules and regulations. The leading occupational hazards in this study area included acute respiratory illnesses, and musculoskeletal injuries including head and back injuries. Riders ranked fatigue (45%) and lack of training (40%) over poorly maintained roads (10%) as top causes of boda-boda accidents. Lack of training, and non-compliance with Traffic regulations strongly correlated with accidents (r = 0.89). Mandatory training and licensing are recommended for all boda-boda riders before operation, along with refresher courses on occupational safety and health for licensed riders.

Key words:

Occupational hazards

Boda-boda riders

Compliance

Traffic regulations

Introduction

The aim of occupational safety and health (OSH) is to safeguard workers by ensuring that sure their work environment is safe. There’s therefore need for every worker in their fields to know the possible safety and health risks identified in their work places. This is inclusive of physical and mental well-being as they affect their performance while at work. The OSH principle embraces not only identification an assessment of the workplace hazards but also entrenching proactive measures to prevent them, as well as reactive measures such as compensation and rehabilitation for the affected persons. Thus, understanding the OSH in the bodaboda sector is key to addressing work-related hazards, and ensuring a safe, secure environment for riders.

Motorcycles are most common referred to as ‘boda-boda’ in Kenya and Uganda, and ‘motor taxis’ in Brazil. Motorcycles have been used in Kenya since the 1960s to ferry goods and passengers across the Kenya-Uganda border, giving rise to the name ‘boda-boda (Ehebrecht et al., 2018). Intensification and widespread use of these ‘motorized two wheelers’ for transportation of passengers in Kenya began in the 1990s (Opondo & Kiprop, 2018). Their popularity in use is partly due to the purchase cost, low fares, high flexibility, and relative speed compared to other modes of transport. Thus, this mode of transport is available to many within the rural to urban settlements. In regions characterized by poor transport infrastructure networks, motor taxis (bodabodas) have proven to be the only reliable, effective and efficient mode of transport. The foregoing advantages notwithstanding, the bodabodas are less regulated by the traffic authorities and thus prone to road traffic accidents that cause deaths, and/or lifelong injuries and ailments.

Road traffic accidents (RTA) are a major cause of death and disability globally, with higher numbers occurring in developing countries (Hossain et al., 2021; WHO, 2015). The World Health Organization in its 2018 Global Status Report on Road Safety indicated that deaths associated with road traffic accidents had reached 1.35 million annually, the majority being pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists in the 15 to 29 years of age living in the developing countries (WHO, 2018). The increase in road traffic injuries in most developing countries has been attributed to the escalating use of motorcycles for commercial transportation of commuters, goods, and services (Chalya et al., 2014; Kalemile and Kimario, 2023).

Deaths from RTA have also been shown to be higher in Africa than any other region of the world (WHO, 2024). Research conducted by Delamou et al. (2020) reports that motorcycles were responsible for 77% of road traffic accidents (RTAs) in Guinea, with 96% involving young adults. The study also revealed that 54% of fatalities were linked to motorcycle RTAs. The RTAs were attributed to various factors, including a lack of awareness of road safety measures, poor vehicle conditions, inadequate infrastructure, and weak law enforcement exacerbated by corruption. Results from a number of studies indicates that motorcycle accidents are mainly caused by young, unskilled, and occasionally unlicensed motorcyclists as well as irresponsible riding during rush hour (Delamou et al., 2020; Ndwiga et al., 2019). Operation of below-par mechanical conditions for motorcycles has also been cited as a cause of RTAs amongst riders, passengers and pedestrians (Delamou et al., 2020). RTAs have been exacerbated by the potholed, muddy and impassible road conditions in most of the developing countries that present huge occupational and health hazards to both the motorcycle operators and commuters particularly during the rainy season.

According to studies by Deme (2019) and Hareru et al. (2022), speeding, drunk driving and mechanical failures are the major factors contributing to the increased RTAs in developing nations. Further, a study conducted in Ghana, showed that lack knowledge of road traffic signs was another factor that contributes to RTAs (Pebalo et al., 2012). Available data from several African nations, including Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, reveals that human error on the roads is the primary cause of the majority of traffic accidents involved vehicles and motorcycles. Similar results have been published by Azestop, 2010 and WHO, 2018 which shows that human error accounts for over 90% of traffic accidents worldwide, with a notably high percentage in African nations like Kenya.

The introduction of motorcycles as a mode of transport by the Government of Kenya was envisioned as a strategy to alleviate poverty (SDG1) and promote decent employment and economic growth (SDG 8). The boda-boda industry was also intended to enhance health and well-being (SDG 3), thereby prioritizing the safety and welfare of both boda-boda operators and commuters. However, the observed high number of deaths resulting from motorcycle-related RTAs are counterintuitive and counterproductive to the enumerated Sustainable Development Goals as well as Kenya’s Vision 2030. It is thus ironical that while governments globally are trying to create employment through expansion of the transport industry, many of the youths are succumbing to motorcycle RTA-related deaths. With the observed rise in the motorcycle RTA related deaths, governments in the Sub-Saharan region are at crossroads on whether to continue or discontinue the expansion of motorcycle transport of passengers and goods.

It is against this background that this study was conceived to assess (i) compliance amongst bodaboda riders with occupational requirements; (ii) occupational hazards facing the riders; (iii) compliance with traffic rules and regulations; and (iv) the relationship between compliance with traffic regulations and accidents involving boda-boda riders.

Methodology

Study Area

The study was carried around Egerton University that is located in Njoro sub-county which has a population of 184,859 according to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS, 2019). The Sub-County’s area is approximately 713.30km² (Fig. 1). The average annual maximum temperature of the area is 22°C while the average annual minimum temperature is 8°C. The average annual rainfall is around 762mm and it stands at an average altitude of 1800m above sea level. The region has two rainy seasons; April, May and August (long rains) and October and December (short rains). The trading centres around Egerton University include Njoro, Neisuit, Kihingo, Lare, Mauche and Mau Narok among others. The topography of the study sites is varied with soils that have been characterized as Planosols, Plinthosols, Fluvisols and Humic Acrisols, Phaeozems, Andosols that support both crop, livestock production and agroforestry (Baldyga et al., 2007). The soil texture for some of the sites ranges from clay loams to sandy clay loams (Baldyga et al., 2007; Shivoga et al., 2007). The residents of the study sites are mostly engaged in small-scale farming of cereals, potatoes, vegetables, and small and medium enterprise businesses.

Fig. 1

Map of the study Area

Other businesses are in the service industry that include hotels and food, transport, and vehicle repair and service. There are have over 140 primary and secondary schools, and tertiary institutions in the study area. Finally, there are more than sixty churches, and over 20 health centres, all contributing to the large number of people in need of motorcycle transport in the study area. A large number of the people in the aforementioned socioeconomic activities utilize the bodaboda transport owing to poor road networks as well as unreliability of the public transport system in the region.

We adopted a cross-sectional survey research design in assessing the occupational health and safety and compliance with traffic regulations amongst boda-boda riders in the study area. A sample of 100 boda-boda operators was arrived at using cluster sampling targeting the three motorcycle stations (Egerton University Main Gate, Kwa Wright and Beeston Gate) owing to the large volume of traffic. Primary data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires administered on the 100 boda-boda operators. Other data collection methods that we used included: Focus Group Discussion which involved the traffic police, ministry of health officials, leaders of boda-boda Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) and National Transportation Authority (NTSA) Officers. Key Informant Interviews targeted opinion leaders in the study area; this included Nyumba kumi leaders (leaders for clusters of 10 persons in human settlements), Church leaders, community health workers, hospital workers, and bodaboda leaders. An observation schedule was also conducted by the researchers to collect data on the behaviour and practices of the riders.

The data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics included measures of central tendency and was used to describe variables under study such as in identifying the occupational hazards facing Bodaboda riders in the study area. Inferential statistics was also used to evaluate the factors influencing level of knowledge, attitude and perception among the general public with respect to compliance with occupational rules and regulations. Further, inferential statistics (Bivariate and Multivariate analysis) were used to establish the relationship between compliance and the number of accidents involving boda-boda operators. Finally, correlations were used to show the various relationships amongst various study variables.

Results and Discussion

Demographic Characteristics

Our results revealed that 70% of the respondents were aged between 18 and 35 years, 25% were between 36 and 40 years, while 5% were between 51 and 65 years (Fig. 2). These findings demonstrate that the majority of boda-boda riders around Egerton University are youths, a demographic category identified by the WHO reports of 2018 and 2022 as being most vulnerable to road traffic accidents (RTAs) (WHO, 2018b; WHO, 2022). This observation underscores the significant factors contributing to motorcycle RTA-related fatalities and the resulting substantial economic losses. Several related studies have corroborated our findings, confirming that the majority of RTA patients are youths, consistent with the peak occurrence of motorcycle injuries within this age group (Hossain et al., 2021; Oltaye et al., 2021). Youth, being in their most active years, are more likely to engage in high-risk behaviors such as reckless riding, over-speeding, and in some cases, operating motorcycles under the influence of alcohol. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that a significant proportion of youthful boda-boda riders do not wear protective gear while riding, exacerbating their vulnerability to death and severe injuries in the event of an accident (Kalemile and Kimario, 2023; Ndashimye, 2013).

Fig. 2

Age of boda-boda riders around Egerton University, Kenya

Respondents who had operated motorcycles for commercial transport for less than 5 years were 41%, while those who had been in the business between 5 and 10 years were 48%. Those who had operated between 16–20 years were 7% and only 4% of the respondents had operated motorcycles for above 20 years (Fig. 3). These observations were interpreted in the following ways: i) that most boda-boda operators do not last long in the transport industry owing to the inherent and associated health and safety concerns and risks; and ii) that the boda-boda industry has mushroomed in the last two decades (Galukande et al., 2009). The Kenyan government promoted the use of these two-wheelers as from 1996 to 2005 to empower and enhance participation of the youth in productive economic activities. Purchase and ownership of motorcycles for transport was accelerated through increased access to financial credit facilities, and formation SACCOs for the boda-boda operators leading to enhanced trade, governance and investments (Amadi & Ombisa, 2016).

Fig. 3

Number of years the study area boda-boda operators have been in the industry

In terms of education level attained, only 2% had college or tertiary level education, whereas 53% and 45% had attained secondary and primary school level, respectively (Fig. 4). Related studies have shown that the majority of commercial motorcyclists have low level of education and this could be partly attributed by the fact that those who are less educated find themselves with few chances in the formal employment sector (Raynor et al., 2014). Similarly, Alemayehu et al. (2020) found that more than 70% of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia's motorcycle taxi drivers had only completed primary school. A low level of education was linked to limited access to formal job options that required higher education. Consequently, the motorcycle taxi sector emerged as a more accommodating alternative. These results are consistent with studies by Ndegwa and Kiura (2018) and Muhumuza et al. (2019), which found that motorcycle operators’ low educational levels prevents them from obtaining formal employment, making the industry an alternative plan. According to Iribhogbe & Odai (2009), engaging in boda-boda operation is an immediate solution to unemployment despite the inherent and associated occupational and health risks involved. This corroborates the survey findings, which showed that most riders were unemployed and had only primary or secondary education. Some studies have actually reported that this transport sector is responsible for the high number of school dropout rates among primary and secondary students (Nyachieo, 2015; Nyaga & Kariuki, 2019).

Fig. 4

Level of education for boda-boda operators in the study area.

Occupational Hazards Facing Bodaboda Riders

The study identified the length of hours that boda-boda operators around Egerton University work per day. From the responses 70% stated that they worked for more than 12 hours; 25% worked between 9 and 12 hours per day; and only 5% of the respondents stated that they worked for up to 8 hours per day (Fig. 5). This demonstrates that over 90% violated the WHO/ILO working hours requirements (Commerce and Offices Convention, 1930), which may help explain the high number of physical and psychosocial issues affecting boda-boda operators.

When asked the reason for the long working hours, they stated that the longer they worked the higher the chance of getting higher bonuses. One of the respondents went ahead to state that “Our bosses demand a large amount of money in daily returns with some demanding up to two thousand shillings (Approximately 17USD) forcing us to work for abnormal hours to reach the target and get some profit for ourselves”. This explains their vulnerability to RTAs and psychosocial issues. These findings are consistent with those of Auko (2016) which revealed that most bodaboda riders work for 5 to 16 hours in a day. Auko further reported that the riders who work for the long hours were those who rented motorcycle and needed additional money for the owners of the motorcycle who demanded daily monetary returns than what the riders could actually make on a normal day. This increased their vulnerability to accidents due to fatigue. Laboratory studies have shown that weariness and lack of adequate sleep can impair performance, resulting in shorter reaction times, attentional problems, and bad judgment (Berneking et al., 2018; Ponnaluri, 2016). Additionally, it is widely established through empirical data gathering that fatigue increases the probability of collisions as a result of performance decline (Czeisler et al., 2016).

In contrast, respondents who worked up to 8 hours a day reported that they owned their motorcycles, giving them the autonomy to decide their working hours. This were mostly the middle-age category who have the financial resources to purchase their own motorcycles. This group is not subjected to external pressure to meet daily targets or quotas, allowing them the flexibility to close business after completing an 8-hour shift. Consequently, they have more time to rest, reducing fatigue and stress levels. This work-life balance contributes to improved overall health and well-being, making them safer and healthier while reducing the likelihood of accidents caused by exhaustion or poor mental health.

Fig. 5

. Length of hours worked by boda-boda operators at Egerton University, Kenya.

Among the leading occupational hazards affecting boda-boda operators in the study were fatigue (55%), fractures (18%) and headaches (16%) (Fig. 6). Others were hip pain (7%) and 4% faced slippery and wet surfaces, especially in the occurrence of rain attributed to poor roads. According to Lam et al. (2019), riding while fatigued was identified as a significant risk factor that contributed to more severe injuries in motorcycle riders in Thailand. Additionally, fatigue was associated with an increased length of hospitalization, as exhausted riders tended to experience more serious accidents, and required extended medical care and recovery time (Zhang et al., 2015).

A study by Nyaga (2017) in Meru South, Kenya, found that the dusty roads in the area heightened the risk of bodaboda riders developing dust-related illnesses, including symptoms like a runny nose and coughing. Reports from Chuka County Hospital indicated that riders seeking medical attention experienced conditions such as pneumonia, chest pain, colds, and severe headaches. Globally, young unmarried males often ride motorcycles at high speeds, and when these machines are in poor condition combined with bad roads, accidents are common. Most respondents in this study identified fatigue as the primary occupational hazard and attributed it to long working hours. Similarly, headaches and fractures were frequently reported amongst the bodaboda riders.

Boda-boda riders reported operating on poorly maintained roads, posing significant occupational and health challenges to both riders and commuters. These results are in line with those of Bezabeh (2022) and Shabani and Mamuya (2020), who found that commercial motorbike operators are more likely to experience health issues, especially respiratory tract infections that negatively impact their well-being, due to the frequent exposure to dusty roads and cold weather. To curb road accidents involving boda-boda operators and passengers, NTSA, starting in 2015, required suppliers and dealers to sell motorcycles only if they include two helmets and two reflective jackets.

Fig. 6

Occupational hazards faced by boda-boda operators in the study area

The results align with those of Nyaga and Kariuki (2019), and Feng et al. (2020), who identified injuries to the head, chest, spine, soft tissues, and fractures as the leading causes of hospitalization and fatalities. Hospital records from their study showed a consistent increase in fatalities and trauma resulting from boda-boda traffic accidents (Feng et al., 2020). Similarly, this study aligns with Tumwesigye et al. (2016), who found head injuries and lower limb fractures to be the most frequent injuries in motorcycle riders in Kampala, Uganda. Additional injuries observed included abrasions, bruises, contusions, fractures, and spinal deformities.

Compliance with Occupational Safety Requirements

Regarding occupational safety compliance, the researchers assessed PPE use among boda-boda operators. The percentage of the respondents who used helmets, jackets with reflectors and chest guards, hand gloves and goggles was 75, 70, 47, and 15, respectively. Thirty percent of the respondents stated that they never used any of the PPEs (Fig. 7). A study by Nyasio (2021), which surveyed 473 bodaboda riders, revealed that 47% of them wore protective gear while riding their motorcycles. In the current study, the most commonly used items were reflector jackets and helmets, worn by 40% of the riders. Among the 53% who did not use personal protective equipment (PPE), 55% attributed the lack of use to the high cost of the gear, while 27% cited discomfort due to the heavyweight and the hot working environment.

The WHO (2012) acknowledged that maintaining safety in the management of commercial boda-boda services continues to be a significant concern. Boda-boda operators and passengers who do not use protective gear face significantly higher risks compared to passengers travelling in other modes of transport, such as cars or buses. Additional reasons advanced by the respondents for not using PPEs were three-fold; they were too old; they were not provided by their employers; and some simply didn’t see the need for them. Consequently, it was no surprise that we have a large number of boda-boda operators and passengers involved in fatal and/or near-fatal accidents. Poor vision is a major cause of accidents in these situations, particularly at night (Donne and Fulton, 1985). The use of fluorescent reflector jackets and helmets which ensure visibility is hardly embraced nor enforced by the traffic police. Although the findings showed a compliance level of 70% for the use of jackets with reflectors, which is above average, it still falls short of the WHO's standard requiring 100% compliance. Ravinder's (1988) survey of 496 motorcyclists in Sydney, Austria found that 91% viewed visibility as crucial for safe riding. Further, a study by Nyasio (2021), in Mbita, revealed that 46% of 322 boda boda riders used reflector jackets. He further noted that the helmet was considered the most crucial piece of protective equipment.

Despite clear evidence of helmets minimizing fatal injuries during accidents, their use, especially in Kenya, remains low (Faried et al., 2017). The current study findings on helmet use are higher than the 22% observed by Galukande et al. (2009), and 27% by Tumwesigye et al. (2020) in Kampala, Uganda and lower than the 89% observed by Luchidio (2015). Overall, these results are consistent with those of Senaji et al. (2023), who revealed that the most popular protective equipment among boda-boda riders was a helmet and a jacket. According to Sisimwo and Onchiri (2018), over 80% of motorist deaths in low- and middle-income countries are caused by head injuries. After a rise in boda-boda accidents in 2009, Kenya passed a traffic law making helmets mandatory, which was further reinforced with an amendment in 2012.

The hefty fines and/or imprisonment terms were meant to be a deterrent measure and as a consequence improve safety amongst the boda boda operators and passengers. Findings from Kim et al. (2015) indicate that helmeted motorists are at a lower risk of injury severity. According to Nguyen et al. (2018), 73% of boda-boda riders wear helmets. The study also found that 95% of them believe helmets help prevent serious head injuries. This shows that helmets are an important safety measure when many riders use them. A similar study by Mwesigwa (2019) showed that wearing a helmet lessened the severity of direct damage to the skull, spread the impact forces over a larger portion of the body, and prevented direct contact between the head and the object causing the impact. Liu et al.( 2008) complement this finding as well, pointing out that helmet wearing among motorbike riders lowers fatal injuries by 69% and deaths by 42%.

Fig. 7

Levels of use of personal protective equipment by boda-boda operators in the study area.

Regarding compliance with occupational health requirements, the study aimed to determine whether respondents had undergone medical examinations as stipulated in the OSH (2007). The results showed that 66% of the respondents regularly underwent medical checkups, while 34% reported having had a medical checkup at least once in the past 5 years (Fig. 8). The high cost of medical examinations, often viewed as too expensive by many riders, was a major factor in their non-compliance with this occupational requirement. The study therefore emphasizes the need to lower healthcare costs to improve compliance, particularly among bodaboda riders.

Fig. 8

Medical check-up status amongst boda-boda operators in the study area

Compliance with Traffic Regulations

Three facets of the National Transport and Safety Authority (Operations of Motorcycles) Regulations (2015) were examined in relation to compliance. These included the use of protective gear, responsibilities of the rider, responsibilities of the owner, carriage of loads, areas of operation and offences and penalties. Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents indicated that they had not undergone the required training and licensing as per the existing Traffic Act (2009) and NTSA Regulations 2015 (Fig. 9). In contrast, Luchidio (2015) found that a majority of boda-boda operators had received the necessary training. Despite this, it was surprising to learn that seventy per cent (70%) of the respondents had licenses. Most of the boda-boda riders are ill-equipped and lack the requisite training and exposure necessary to safely operate the motorcycles. The current study findings are consistent with those of a study conducted in Kisumu, where it was found that a significant number of boda-boda riders had not undergone formal training (Nyachieo, 2020).They have little knowledge of the occupational risks and hazards associated with this transport industry. Even with the existing traffic legal frameworks, it is not uncommon to come across boda-boda riders operating these machines with the required training and licenses and thus precariously exposing themselves as well as their commuters to many occupational safety and health risks.

Those who had not undertaken the driving lessons cited the high cost of the driving schools as the main reason hindering them from acquiring the required training and licensing for them to legally operate. According to Yogo (2018), most boda-boda operators had not complied with the requirement for formal training, primarily due to the high cost of the training. He also reported that the number of operators without valid driving licenses was higher than those who possessed one. Motorcycle riders’ training is done to reduce the rate of accidents (Bezabeh, 2022). According to Chouhan et al. (2024), training offers riders the necessary abilities for operating safely on public roadways. It is a crucial component of boda-boda operators' safety compliance, and non-compliance is associated with increased rates of traffic accidents (Nguyen et al., 2018; Kalemile and Kimario, 2023).

Despite the emphasis on training motorcycle riders to reduce traffic accidents, studies have shown little difference in motorcycle-related fatalities between trained and untrained riders (Vlahos et al., 2021). It’s however expected that with formal training, there will be compliance, and thus lower accident risks for the riders and their passengers (Yogo, 2018).

Fig. 9

Training and licensing status among boda-boda operators in the study area.

Many boda-boda operators were well aware of the leading traffic violations in the industry. According to 78, 65, 50 and 57% of them cited the failure to wear helmets, over speeding, failure to observe traffic regulations and overloading respectively, as the leading traffic violations in their trade (Fig. 10). This demonstrates a fairly good understanding of the NTSA (operations of motorcycles) regulations of 2015. This study aligns with the findings of Emenike and Akpu (2017), who reported that the most common violations causing accidents in Nigeria were speed violations, dangerous driving, wrongful overtaking, and loss of control.

The respondents believed that provision of helmets to customers was not being adhered to mainly because the majority of the bodaboda riders did not have basic training on the importance of providing helmets to customers. Additionally, the respondents indicated that their passengers were reluctant to wear helmets owing to their hygienic status. A study conducted by Nyasio (2021) is consistent with these findings, as it reported that most riders did not clean their helmets regularly, leading to passengers' reluctance to use them due to their unhygienic conditions. Passengers expressed concerns about contracting skin diseases from using the helmets. Similarly, the United Nations Motorcycle Helmet Study (2016) identified poor hygiene as the primary reason for the low helmet usage. Overspeeding was also a main issue of concern which was attributed to the demand by passengers to arrive at their various destinations without delay. Youth motorcyclists may be less likely to wear helmets because they tend to display riskier behaviors and attitudes compared to adults (Abid et al., 2022).

The results align with those of Opondo and Kiprop (2018) in Kisumu, which revealed that most boda-boda riders did not wear helmets, frequently overloaded their motorcycles, and allowed passengers to ride without helmets practices that significantly increased the risk to their lives. Similarly, a study by Luchidio (2015) supports the current findings, indicating that the main contributors to the high number of road traffic accident (RTA) fatalities were riders' and passengers' failure to wear helmets, along with overloading of motorcycles. Motorbike riders are particularly vulnerable to fatal head and neck injuries as revealed by (Solagberu et al., 2006; Chalya et al., 2010). Motorcycle crashes were a major cause of traffic injuries with serious public health impacts, especially in developing countries (Ameratunga et al., 2006; Nantulya & Reich, 2002; Ndwiga et al., 2019).

Wearing of helmets protects both riders and passengers from serious injuries in-case of accidents. Studies shows that it lowers medical costs, shortens hospital stays, and reduces deaths (Liu et al., 2008). Hence a number of countries have put laws in place that require helmet use to improve rider safety (Bezabeh et al., 2022). These laws help reduce motorcycle crash deaths (Chalya et al., 2014; Grima et al., 1995). A study in United States found that states which had helmet laws had 22–33% fewer rider deaths than those without such laws (Houston and Richardson, 2007). Key informants’ interviews with the police in the Traffic Police Department indicated that over speeding was among the traffic offenses committed by the boda-boda operators (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10

The most common traffic offenses amongst boda-boda operators in the study area

Relationship between Traffic Compliance and Accidents

Table 1

Correlations between various variables and accidents
	Wear Helmets	Overloading	Over Speeding	Alcohol Use
Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient	0.601	0.739	0.839	0.664
Significance level	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01

The respondents revealed that wearing helmets significantly increased their likelihood of staying safe during an accident (r = 0.601). Similar observations were made with respect to overloading (r = 0.739), and over-speeding (r = 0.839). Use of alcohol was also positively correlated to the number of boda boda accidents (r = 0.664) (Table 1). Among the leading causes of boda boda accidents are; over-speeding (70%), overloading (66%), failure to observe traffic signs (50%) and alcohol use (43%) by Boda-boda operators (Chalya et al., 2010; Ndwiga et al., 2019). The motorcycle's easy maneuverability makes it preferred over car taxis. This, however, poses a problem as motorists often do not follow road rules carefully. A study by Manyara (2016) in Busia County found that lack of formal training, with most riders being self-taught or taught by their friends, was one of the major cause of accidents among boda-boda operators. Commercial motorbike transportation is frequently associated with risky behaviors specifically in developing nations which include; riders and passengers not wearing helmets, carrying too many people, riding without a valid license, lack of proper training, overspeeding, reckless driving, weak law and policy enforcement, and sometimes riding under influence of drug or alcohol (Chalya et al., 2010; Kilawa & Nyongole, 2015). Alcohol impairs driving ability (Christophersen and Gjerde, 2015; Faried et al., 2017; Kasantikul et al., 2005). Additionally, it leads to carelessness, loss of focus, speeding, and ignoring safety precautions like wearing helmet (Lin & Kraus, 2009). Accidents involving drunk motorcycle riders occurred mostly in the night and weekends when the riders were off duty (Kasantikul et al., 2005). The percentage of helmet use in the current study was much lower among patients who consumed alcohol compared to those who did not, further demonstrating the link between traffic regulations compliance and number of RTAs.

Conclusions and Recommendations

We conclude that bodaboda riders in the study area are largely non-compliant in terms of occupational requirements as well as traffic regulations as spelt out in the existing national and international legal frameworks. Further, many of the riders and by extension commuters are exposed to many occupational and health hazards that have a huge socioeconomic and ergonomic burden to the concerned families and government associated with motorcycle accident-related injuries and deaths. The high number of boda-boda related RTAs can largely be explained by the non-compliance with occupational safety and health rules and traffic regulations among boda-boda operators and their passengers. We recommend introduction of refresher courses and trainings for bodaboda riders on the various aspects of traffic rules and regulations as envisaged in the NTSA (operations of motorcycles) regulations of 2015. Such trainings should include occupational safety and health measures for those operating in the bodaboda transport industry. Implementation of the study recommendations will lead to a reduction in financial losses associated with the ergonomic hazards in this transport sector. Further, the findings will contribute to the World Health Organization’s efforts of guaranteeing a healthy population and hazard-free working environment that safeguards not only the lives of the riders but also those of the commuters.

Declaration of competing interests

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

Funding

This work is self-financed and never received any external funding.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to staff and students of Environmental Science Department at Egerton University for their unwavering support during the course of the study. Special thanks goes to Mr. Charles Mwangi Macharia from Geography Department for his assistance in developing a map for this study. Finally, our debt of gratitude goes to all reviewers for their insightful comments.

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