Entrepreneurship has evolved as a crucial driving force, contributing to employment generation, economic development, innovation, and commercialization, thereby improving individual living standards. Numerous studies have highlighted the significance and contribution of entrepreneurship to economies, as it enhances the economic capacity of individuals to purchase goods and services produced by manufacturing industries or firms, and meets the demand for new goods and services in both domestic and international markets (Joseph, 2025; Du & O'Connor, 2018). For emerging economies characterized by a large informal sector, entrepreneurship can help reduce inequality (Thai & Turkina, 2013; Musara & Nieuwenhuizen, 2020; Soni, 2017). Entrepreneurship that occurs in the informal sector or leads to more inclusive institutions can decrease inequality.

India is an emerging economy with a large informal sector (Harriss-White, 2024). To support the sustainable entrepreneurship and innovation (E&I) ecosystem, the Government of India (GoI) has introduced several initiatives, including Stand Up India, Startup India, NewGen Innovation, and Entrepreneurship Development Centre. Consequently, India has emerged as the third-largest start-up ecosystem in the world with 1.25 lakh start-ups and 110 unicorns (Business Today, 2024). In the recent edition of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor National Entrepreneurship Context Index, India emerged as the fourth-ranked country. Similarly, India's performance in the Global Innovation Index has shown consistent improvement (WIPO, 2024). However, entrepreneurs in India face a variety of challenges, including gender inequality, bureaucratic hurdles, high costs associated with starting a new business, limited access to finance, and difficulties in scaling up the business (Soni et al., 2025; Jindal & Bhardwaj, 2016). Hence, significant efforts are required to address these challenges to further strengthen India's entrepreneurship and innovation ecosystem. One major step towards strengthening India's E&I ecosystem could be developing a strong pool of individuals with entrepreneurial competence by introducing entrepreneurship across all educational levels. Over the past three decades, entrepreneurship has gained popularity in both educational practice and research (Tiberius, 2023; Joensuu-Salo et al., 2023).

Additionally, Sustainable Development Goal 4 emphasizes the need to develop students' creativity, critical thinking, and innovation—skills that enable them to become job creators rather than job seekers. Institutions can foster socially conscious entrepreneurs who create businesses that strike a balance between financial success, environmental stewardship, and social well-being by incorporating sustainability ideas into entrepreneurship education. This congruence ensures that education fosters employability while also contributing to the creation of resilient, inclusive, and sustainable communities. The linkage between the content and pedagogy of EE and entrepreneurial outcomes, including entrepreneurial skills, intentions, competencies, and performance, has been analyzed by several studies (Onjewu, 2021; Matlay, 2008). Human resource management is another critical factor influencing entrepreneurship performance (Jack et al., 2006). Numerous studies examining the linkage between HRM and corporate performance have been published throughout the 1990s. High-Performing Work Practices (HPWPs) enhance employee competence, engagement, and productivity, ultimately promoting business performance. Similarly, HR plays an important role in the growth of entrepreneurial ventures (Van Lancke et al., 2022). Therefore, it is essential to educate entrepreneurs on HRM. However, there is a paucity of literature on the role of HRM in EE. The scarcity of studies on the intersection of entrepreneurship education and HRM highlights a significant research gap. While both fields are extensively researched individually, their integration remains underexplored. Addressing this gap could lead to more comprehensive educational programs that equip students to effectively manage human resources in entrepreneurial settings.

This study addresses this gap by analyzing the curricula of select MBA entrepreneurship programs with regard to coverage of HRM, based on a qualitative content analysis of MBA curricula offered with an entrepreneurial focus at 25 globally renowned HEIs. In particular, we examine the programme objectives, learning contents, pedagogy, and assessment methods. We used descriptive statistics to present the analysis of the data. To achieve the objective, this paper is organized as follows: The next section discusses the existing literature related to the topic. We have discussed the research method in Section 3. The fourth section presents results, followed by discussions that include the theoretical and practical implications of the study. Lastly, we present the conclusion, limitations, and future agenda of research. The study contributes to the entrepreneurship education literature by capturing the current state of entrepreneurship curricula designed for MBA students across different countries, with a specific focus on the coverage of HRM. This study will help educational policymakers, academic leaders, and entrepreneurship scholars make informed decisions when designing curricula for entrepreneurship programs.

This section reviews the existing literature on EE, examining its various definitions, significance, evolution, objectives, outcomes, pedagogy, and design.

The objective of this study is to analyze the coverage of HRM in EE in top-ranked Business Schools globally. To understand how leading graduate entrepreneurship programs define their program objectives, learning content, teaching methods, and assessment methods, we first had to select a sample representing best practices among many such programs. Figure 1 explains the step-by-step research process followed. The choice of our ranking was guided by Tiberius et al. (2023). In their study, they used the Financial Times ranking as (1) a notable institution provides it, (2) it is based on transparent methodology considering multiple criteria, and (3) it is not limited to a specific region. Moreover, it also has a strong reputation among the academic fraternity as it publishes the renowned "FT50" journal list, which is considered to represent 50 of the best scholarly management and economics journals (Fassin, 2021) and is frequently used in systematic literature reviews when scholars focus on articles that have been published in top-tier journals only. Differences across regions regarding teaching and research traditions in management education (Grey, 2010; Üsdiken, 2014) may lead to cultural biases. We decided to use an international ranking to shortlist B-Schools for our study. This way, the first step of this study was to finalise the ranking choice.

As the second step of selecting B-Schools, based on recently published global rankings of B-Schools (2023-24), we selected the top 25 colleges that offer entrepreneurship programs. Since rankings assess colleges on various quality parameters and the implementation of education, the authors opted for this sample selection method. Additionally, since entrepreneurship education is still in its developmental stage (Do Nguyen et al., 2023), we acknowledged that not every college offering entrepreneurship programs would meet the required parameters. Hence, a filter for selection was necessary, which is explained below.

After selecting the colleges, the third step was to thoroughly study the official websites of each college and collect information about the program structure, courses offered, program duration, and overall curriculum of the entrepreneurship program. We tabulated the information collected.

The final step was to incorporate the information in the present study, conduct a comparative analysis between the programs offered by the selected colleges, and assess their orientation towards HRM in entrepreneurship education (EE).

Sources: Authors own

Data Analysis

To achieve the study's objectives, we employed descriptive analysis. Descriptive statistics summarise and explore data characteristics (Green et al., 2023). Using current and historical data helps identify trends and relationships (Cote, 2021). It studies variables' distribution and characteristics (Kothari, 2004). It also helps simplify complex raw data by arranging it to make it easy to understand and interpret (Cote, 2021; Kothari, 2004). Conducting descriptive analysis aims to gain knowledge and understanding of events, persons, and situations, and answer the phenomenological questions (Kothari, 2004; Saunders et al., 2019). Research helps understand the data collected and the relationships among variables under observation. It also provides the base for inferential analysis by providing a comprehensive overview of the data under observation (Kothari, 2004; Saunders et al., 2019). Hence, it is crucial to conduct descriptive analysis to understand what the data and information convey or indicate during the research process.

In this section, we present the findings of descriptive analysis.

Table 1 lists the selected B-Schools and presents details regarding the programs offered by them, including country of origin, duration, mode of delivery, and titles of HRM courses. Table 1 is populated with a list of colleges that provide EE globally. Next, the mode of education is specified (offline, online, or blended). In the next column, we explore the duration of the program, followed by geographic location. In the final column, we mention the orientation of the EE towards HRM courses. That parameter checks whether the program structure has any HRM-related courses, and if yes, to what extent and at what level they are covered. These details would facilitate achieving the study's objective of understanding the orientation of HRM courses in EE. Most of the courses related to entrepreneurship focused on innovation management, Sectoral innovation, and Entrepreneurship development. Also, there were courses related to financial strategy and marketing management, but the scope was limited to the fundamentals.

According to the FT Rankings 2025, the institution tied for 15th rank; however, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics was not included in our research due to the absence of its data in the public domain. The institution tied at rank 20th, i.e., the University of Virginia: Darden School of Business, was not included in our research because of its greater emphasis on corporate leadership than entrepreneurship education. Babson College (Olin Graduate School of Business) and XLRI (Xavier School of Management) were included in our research, despite not being among the top 25 rankings of the Financial Times. This was mainly due to their structured, robust, and dedicated program towards entrepreneurship. Lastly, Stanford University (Stanford GSB) was chosen among the top 25 institutions, despite not being included in the FT Rankings 2025. This was done because of its exceptional performance in the Quacquarelli Symonds (QS) Rankings 2025. Stanford University (Stanford GSB) is ranked 1st in the QS Rankings.

Table 1 provides collated data from the top-ranked institutions providing entrepreneurship education and management studies. They belong to the U.S., U.K., France, India, Singapore, China, Spain, Switzerland, and Italy. Global indices rank these institutes based on corporate leadership, quality, and ROI. Entrepreneurship education focuses on innovation and sectoral management, and HRM plays a crucial role in equipping entrepreneurs with leadership and organisational skills.

Source: Authors own

Figure 2 shows us the spread of the Top 25 Global Institutions/Universities on the world map. The figure shows that twenty-two out of the top twenty-five B schools belong to the Western world; fourteen in the US, three in Spain, two in France, and one in Italy, Switzerland, and the UK. The rest of the three B schools have their home on the Asian continent, with one in India, China, and Singapore, respectively. Furthermore, the countries have been given a distinct colour code in the Index for their particular representation on the world map.

Figure 3 represents the percentage share of countries hosting the top 25 entrepreneurship B-schools that offer HR as a specialization course. Each country has been given a specific colour code to determine its share in the pie chart. The USA has the highest representation with a whopping 50%, followed by the UK (15%) and India (15%). France, Singapore, Canada, and China have smaller shares, with 4% each.

Source: Authors own

Figure 4 presents the HRM course integration in the EE. It was observed that ‘Human Resource Management’ was adopted by one-fifth of the Top 25 Entrepreneurship colleges. It was also found that ‘Strategic human resources management’ and ‘Human resources planning and staffing’ were incorporated by the six universities imparting EE, followed by ‘Managing human resources’ and ‘Leadership and strategic human resources management’. The courses included in the EE curricula were found to be basic in nature, explaining the fundamentals of the function.

Source: Authors own

Inclusion/Exclusion criteria:

Course content analysis:

The authors conducted a content analysis of the course content related to HRM in EE. Each HR-related course offered was reviewed, and a summary was created to highlight the key topics in the course. Table 3 represents the content analysis of the courses:

The study began with two objectives wherein the authors researched the current state of entrepreneurship curricula designed for MBA students across different countries in regard to the coverage of HRM. Secondly, how is the country-wise distribution of EE, and is there any difference between the HRM courses imparted?

The significant finding of this study is that there is very little integration of HRM in EE across the sampled EE programs. The study found that, beyond the introductory course on HRM, hardly any courses were included in the EE program structure. It was also found in Fig. 2 that two courses merged leadership with HRM. Additionally, although the courses had different nomenclatures, their contents were similar or overlapping, essentially explaining the fundamental functions of HRM. This was the prevailing state of HRM integration in EE in most countries worldwide, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and many South Asian countries.

Secondly, the hub for EE was primarily located in the United States and the United Kingdom. Although South Asian countries, such as India and China, were on the list, the number was limited. All the courses were taught over a 2-year period, and the mode of instruction was offline on campus. The study found that contemporary human resources practices were missing from the curricula. The field of HRM, both academically and practically, has undergone a significant transformation in recent times, embracing the UN's sustainable goals. New practices, including diversity and inclusion, learning organizations, organizational development, and the adoption of change and technology, have emerged. None of the colleges or universities had these courses in their EE curricula. This gap was identified in the present study, which the B-School authorities must address by re-examining and redesigning the EE curricula and expanding their exposure to contemporary HRM practices, thereby promoting the quality of education. This will ensure relevance to current times and help budding entrepreneurs gain exposure to people's practices. A war for talent is always a battle in the market. Hence, even entrepreneurs want to attract, maintain, and retain the best talent for business success. At the beginning of their EE, if they are educated about the changes in HRM practices and move beyond basic functional knowledge, it will better equip them with people management skills.

Furthermore, when it comes to innovation in entrepreneurship education, it is found that the existing institutions and bodies imparting EE have focused on an experience-based learning approach. They have deeply emphasized extracurricular activities (field trips, site visits), guest lectures, case studies, international student exchanges, and volunteering. However, this approach can also be combined with other methods, such as problem-based learning, project-based learning, design thinking, and blended learning, facilitated by technology integration. This can help the budding entrepreneurs seeking EE to develop empathetic capabilities, brainstorm ideas, and build a solution-based approach. Also, integrating technology in blended learning can help entrepreneurs experience virtual simulations, which can enhance the learning experience in EE.

Moreover, students can develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills by engaging in problem-based learning. At the same time, project-based learning can inculcate qualities like teamwork within an individual. Therefore, incorporating innovative approaches such as problem-based learning, project-based learning, design thinking, and blended learning can enhance the overall educational experience of students seeking specialized entrepreneurial education.

Theoretical Implications

Our study supports the notion that EE programs enhance students' entrepreneurial orientation and skills, making them more independent and capable of setting up new businesses (Galvão et al., 2020; Kissi et al., 2020). Our study highlights the important role HRM plays in fostering entrepreneurial orientation (Moustaghfir et al., 2020). Incorporating HRM practices into a firm's strategy helps shape organizational attitudes, behaviour, and cultural determinants. This further nurtures innovativeness, risk-taking, and a willingness to drive initiatives (Moustaghfir et al., 2020), which is critical for entrepreneurial activities. Our study strongly advocates that EE integrate HRM to build entrepreneurial orientation and competencies among its students. EE with a strong focus on HRM helps develop students' entrepreneurial orientation, skills, qualities, and attitudes, equipping them for real-life entrepreneurial experiences characterized by challenges and opportunities (Ho et al., 2024; Hawari-Latter et al., 2021; Aadland & Aaboen, 2020). Given that EE has little HRM orientation, our study strongly recommends incorporation.

Practical Implications

Based on the literature review and descriptive analysis findings, our study proposes several practical implications for educational leaders and policymakers. Educational institutions should align HRM with EE to foster entrepreneurial orientation among students, aligning it with SDG 4, which emphasizes the quality of education. This strategic alignment would enable students to develop the knowledge, skills, and competencies necessary for supporting innovation and entrepreneurial initiatives. This can be attained by adopting appropriate pedagogy and methods (Galvão et al., 2020; Kissi et al., 2020). Educational institutions can introduce more courses related to key HRM practices and frameworks, such as high-performance work practices, the motivation-opportunity framework, conflicts, and negotiation, as this improves students' entrepreneurial performance and capabilities (Florén et al., 2016). Secondly, while integrating HRM in EE, educational institutions can introduce technology through online learning, project management (Winarno et al., 2019), simulation games, or platforms based on entrepreneurial activities that relate to team building, negotiations, and management of employer-employee relations (Chen, 2022). This will provide them with practical experience in a risk-free environment and help them develop strategic skills, including problem-solving, decision-making, and negotiation. Third, when incorporating HRM in EE, educational institutions need to collaborate with the government and industry to explore opportunities related to funding, mentorship, and building readiness for entrepreneurial careers (Zhou, 2021; Ellermann, 2017).

Limitations and future scope of the study:

The study was not free from limitations. Firstly, the list of the top 25 colleges or universities that impart EE was compiled from secondary sources. Several rankings were used for this purpose. The accuracy of this information may be limited as we could not consider all the rankings published online. Secondly, not all the websites gave details of the program structure. Hence, it is possible that some HRM-related courses may not be included in our study due to the unavailability of data on the college or university website. Third, due to the widespread distribution of colleges in different geographic locations, it would not be easy to generalize the study findings to all entrepreneurship colleges. Future studies are encouraged to explore students' feedback on HRM coverage in the EE. Do students think HRM orientation should be increased in their entrepreneurship program, or are they satisfied with the current structure? Furthermore, scholars are encouraged to explore contemporary HRM courses that can be integrated into the EE curricula. This study provided an initial contribution to an upcoming change to the program structure in EE through HRM orientation. Scholars can examine the interrelationship between the inclusion of HRM courses and their impact on student personality and self-efficacy. The future scope of the study could include extending this inquiry through qualitative and quantitative studies.

The ranking of the top 25 MBA universities and colleges in entrepreneurship involved a curriculum analysis that looked at the HRM orientation in the EE. The results show that most subjects in the EE program were connected to innovation, including idea generation, concept incubation, and creative thinking in general. Except for the fundamental HRM course, no other contemporary subjects in HRM were included in the program structure. Every MBA program providing EE should include HRM orientation beyond the basics as part of its core curriculum. MBA programs should consider involving their external advisory boards, past and present students, and other relevant stakeholders in the development of HRM course content to facilitate curriculum modifications. In the dynamic market, developing and managing talent in the workplace is crucial for entrepreneurs, and instilling this mindset in their education is the best start one can make, which the authors propose through their study.