Ethnobotanical investigation of plants traditionally used to treat and prevent malaria in

Sibusire district, western Ethiopia

Tena Regassa1*, Mebrate Dufera2, Oljira Kenea2

1,2,3 College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Department of Biology, Wollega University, Po.Box 395, Nekemte, Ethiopia

1* Corresponding author: Tena Regasa-

email- tenaregasa@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0751-9422

ABSTRACT

Medicinal plants have been used for treating humans and animals since time immemorial. Patients and sick animals have been given a variety of traditional remedies of plant origin by local practitioners in Ethiopia.

This study was conducted in the Sibu Sire district to look into the plants that the local Oromo communities have traditionally utilized to cure and prevent malaria in 2022. The snowball (referral) sampling was used for interviewing 62 interviewees (42 men and 20 women). In addition, 8 (five men and three women) key informants were included for the purpose of collecting more ethnobotanical data through purposive sampling. With the statistical software MINITAB Release 14.3.0 and SPSS version 26, one-way ANOVA and t-tests were used to compare the ethnomedical knowledge possessed by various informant categories. The study found 46 known species of antimalarial medicinal plants, belonging to 46 genera and 24 families. When preparing remedies, the most commonly used ethnomedicinal plant components were roots (31.91%), which were followed by leaves (27.65%). The majority of medicines (69.56%) were made using fresh plant materials; these were typically produced and applied by boiling the decoction, drinking it when it cooled (43.30%), and then drinking the mixture (10.86%).

The most popular mode of administration was oral (69.56%), which was followed by nasal (21.73%). The ethnobotanical knowledge of therapeutic plants was statistically significantly influenced by age, literacy level, distance from a health center, and informant experience (P < 0.05). In the study setting, storage practices were kept to a minimum, and the majority of the valuable plants were harvested from wild sources. The elements that pose the greatest threat to plant resources in the Sibu Sire district were determined to be agricultural expansion, overstocking/grazing, and fuelwood collecting. It is recommended that federal, regional, and local government forestry agencies move swiftly to preserve these invaluable resources before they are gone forever, since the data that is obtained will likely help preserve the rapidly depleting plant resources. To further support the survey results, a thorough phytochemical screening, phytotoxicity, and pharmacological investigation are needed.

Keywords:

Informants

Malaria

Medicinal Plants

Sibu Sire district

Survey

INTRODUCTION

Malaria remains a severe hazard to public health in tropical regions of the world, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2019, this endemic disease claimed the lives of 409 thousand people and afflicted 229 million people. Early detection and targeted antimalarial medicine treatment are the only ways to control the disease as there are no commercially available vaccines that effectively prevent it. Many cultures have a long history of using traditional plant infusions and other natural products in conjunction with chemotherapy medications. Research has yielded two botanical based medications against malaria: the alkaloid quinine from Cinchona species, which is unique to South America's Amazon highland rain forest, and artemisinin from Artemisia annua, a species from traditional Chinese medicine (Ceravolo et al., 2021).The advent of multidrug resistance has hampered the use of artemisinin-based combination treatments (ACTs), which have been shown to be highly effective against malaria parasites and are regarded as "the last bullet to Figureht drug-resistant malaria parasites." Additionally, the need for new antimalarial medication development is urgent due to the restricted number of therapeutic choices (Ceravolo et al., 2021).

Single-cell protozoan parasites, Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi, are the ones that cause malaria in humans. Female Anopheles mosquitoes are the vector of malaria transmission (Crompton et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2021). The most prevalent and virulent species in the globe is P. falciparum. An estimated 229 million new cases and

409,000 deaths worldwide were reported in 2019 due to malaria, with 94% of cases and 95% of deaths occurring in the African continent. The most susceptible groups were children under five and pregnant women (WHO, 2020).

Approximately 60% of Ethiopia's population resides in malaria risk areas, primarily those that are lower than 2000 meters above sea level. The western part of the country particularly western Oromia, Amhara, Tigray, and Southern Nation and Nationality and Peoples’ region (SNNP) and most of the entire areas of Benishangul Gumuz and Gambella regions represent the major malarial hotspots in the country (Sema and Waktola, 2022). Ethiopia has set a goal to eradicate malaria nationwide by 2030. However, Ethiopia’s economy and health have been greatly impacted by the presence of drug-tolerant Plasmodium species. In particular, Plasmodium falciparum has become resistant to every anti-malarial medication that is now in use. A large number of anti-malarial medications with notable structural differences have been discovered as a result of the advent of drug-resistant malaria species.

Traditional medicine is defined as the application of all knowledge, skills, and techniques derived from indigenous beliefs, practices, and experiences to promote and preserve health as well as to identify, diagnose, treat, and prevent physical and mental illnesses (WHO, 2008). The method includes massage, spiritual treatments, and other locally and culturally unique techniques in addition to medicines made from plants, animals, and minerals (Chali et al., 2021). As a health resource, traditional medicines are still highly underutilized. Insights and innovative methods from traditional medicine may also directly impact public health and the financial sector (Graz et al, 2011). Traditional medicine provides primary medical care to between 65 and 80 percent of the world's population (Pan et al., 2014).

According to the World Health Organization, there are many benefits to complementary, alternative, and conventional medicine that have all been demonstrated to be of the highest caliber, security, and efficacy (WHO, 2013).There aren't many studies on the anti-malarial plants in Sibu Sire district and the dangers they pose. To the best of our knowledge, there aren't many written reports from this malaria-prone region of the nation

about plants that are historically used to treat malaria. Therefore, the aim of this study was to document traditional medicinal plant species and indigenous knowledge that are utilized to cure and prevent malaria in a selected village in Sibu Sire district. Documenting these plants and the indigenous knowledge associated with them is essential to maintaining both the therapeutic plants and the customs and traditions of the local community. Thus, ethnobotanical investigation of plants traditionally used to treat and prevent malaria in Sibusire district, western Ethiopia was conducted.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Description of the study area

Location

The study was conducted in Sibu Sire district situated East Wollega zone, western Ethiopia. It is roughly 50 kilometers from Nekemte, the zonal town, and 280 kilometers from Addis Ababa, the Ethiopian capital (Fig. 1). Its geographic coordinates are 8o 16'20''N to 10o 16'40''N and 36o 47'00''E to

37o 0'00''E, according to Arfassa (2015). Mean annual rainfall was estimated to be 1350 mm with the rain mainly falling from May to September, with peak in July-August that shows unimodal type of rainy season. Monthly maximum and minimum temperature recorded was 31.8

0C (in February) and 12.50C (in December), while the average annual temperature is about

21.10C (Ethiopia National Meteorological Service Agency, 2023). Then, with a maximum temperature of 31.8 0C, February is the hottest month, followed by January (30.130C), and December has the lowest minimum temperature of 12.50C, making it the coldest month.

Fig. 1

Map of SibuSire district

Study design

A community based cross sectional study was conducted in Sibu Sire district, East Wollega zone, western Ethiopia in 2022. Sixty two heads of households were surveyed using snowball sampling and were interviewed using semi structured questionnaire.

Study Population

The district was predicted to have 102,228 total residents, of which 51,511 were women and

50,717 men. Of them, 10,243, or 10.02%, lived in urban areas. Sibu Sire is estimated to be

1,132.51 square kilometers in size, with a population density of 86.4 people per square kilometer

(CSA, 2008).

Sampling and sampling procedure

Site selection

The research was carried out in a few malaria-prone communities in the Sibusire district of the Eastern Wollega Zone of Ethiopia, during the major and minor malaria seasons, when the population is aware of the disease. The villages were specifically chosen on the basis of their accessibility and awareness of documented incidences of malaria.

An ethnobotanical survey

Sixty two heads of households were surveyed using snowball (referral) sampling in order to document traditional knowledge about indigenous anti-malarial plants and determine the extent to which households were using traditional medicinal plants for malaria prevention and treatment following Dange Abebe and Belachew Garedew (2019). Eight of these heads were traditional healers who were included by purposeful sampling. Random interviews were conducted with sample household heads in the communities. The ethno botanical techniques utilized to collect data on the knowledge and uses of medicinal plants were based on semi-structured interviews and field observations. All of the plant collections were done by researchers and field helpers who are familiar with traditional healers and speak the local language fluently.

Methods of data collection

A semi-structured questionnaire was developed to collect information on the plants that the people living in the research villages utilized to treat and prevent malaria. It inquired about the socioeconomic standing of the participants, the names of local antimalarial plants, the portions of plants that were utilized, and the transmission of this information to the following generation. Local informants helped with the field observations of the plant species, and experts and herbarium materials were used to help with the taxonomy identification of the plant specimens.

Data analysis

The field researchers verified the data obtained during the survey. Following data cleaning, coding, and editing, data entry and analysis were conducted using SPSS version 26 and MINITAB Release 14.3.0 statistical software. T-tests and one-way ANOVA were used. The percentage of usage reports of medicinal plant species that the informants often cited during the ethnobotanical survey was examined using frequency and cross-tab descriptive statistics.

Ethical considerations

Before the study was carried out, ethical approval was acquired from Wollega University's ethical review committee. A formal letter was sent to the Sibu Sire district government requesting permission and permission was sought.

Every participant in the study region was also asked for their oral consent and consent was sought. The study included every participant who indicated that they were willing to participate, and their names and house numbers were kept private to protect the privacy of the data.

RESULTS

Sociodemographic Characteristics of study participants

Sociodemographic data was displayed in Table 1 that presents the demographic information of

the study's informants, including age group, literacy level, and marital status (M = male, F =

female, T = total).

Table 1
Sociodemographic Characteristics of study participants
Parameter	Informant group	N	Average ± SD	t- value**	P- value
Sex	Male	42	5.45 ± 1.73	0.18	0.858
	Female	20	5.41 ± 1.41
Age	Young members	21	3.74 ± 1.69	6.45	0.001*
	Senior members	41	5.27 ± 1.71
Literacy	Illiterate	39	5.48 ± 1.79	-7.91	0.002*
level	Literate	23	3.79 ± 1.34
Distance from	Near to health centre (≤ 6 km)	27	4.60 ± 1.28	6.39	0.011*
health centres	Far from health centre (> 6 km)	35	5.77 ± 1.42
Experience	Key/Knowledgeable	8	5.72 ± 1.52	-4.54	0.012*
(Informant Category)	General	54	7.73 ± 1.67

Taxonomic diversity of the ethno medicinal plants reported

In the study region, a total of 46 species of medicinal plants from 46 genera and 23 botanical families were reported to be utilized for treating and preventing malaria (Table 2). The Cucurbitaceae family exhibited the largest species count (6 species, 24%), with Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Solanaceae following closely behind with 4 species each, 16% (Figure.2).

Table 2. List of medicinal plants used for the treatment and prevention of malaria in Sibu Sire district

Key

PPU = Plant part used (Rt = root, Lf = leaf, BK = bark, Sd = seed, ZZ = fruit, RBK = root bark, Fsh = fruit flesh, Ss = shoot, Bu = bulb, Tu = tuber, In = inflorescence, St = stem, Sp = sap, Wp = whole plant, Lx = latex, Rh = rhizome); Ha = Habit (T = tree, Sh = shrub, H = herb, Li = liana, Cl = climber); CPU is the plant component's condition of use (fresh, dry, or dry/fresh); RA is the method of administration (oral, dermal, nasal, auricular, or optical) of the

medication; MRPA: the process of creating and implementing solutions .

S/No Scientific name Family

Local Afan Oromo

name ___________

1.	Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Schweinf.	Apocynaceae	qararuu	S h	W	Rt	Fr	4	Or	Salt
2.	Ajuga integrifolia Buch.- Ham. ex D. Don	Lamiaceae	armagusa	H	W	Lf	Fr	1	Or	None
3.	Allium sativum L.	Alliaceae	qulubii adii	H	C	Bu	dr /F	8	Or	Salt
							r
4.	Amaranthus caudatus L.	Amaranthacea e	eyasu	H	W	Ss	Fr	1	Or	None
5.	Arisaema enneaphyllum Hochst. ex Rich.	Araceae	carana	H	W	Sd ,	Fr /d	1	Or	None

Rt r

6. Artemisia abyssinica Sch.

Bip. ex A. Rich.

Asteraceae kodoo H W Lf Fr 1 Or None

7. Asparagus africanus Lam. Asparagaceae saritii H W Tu Fr 1

Na None

8. Brassica nigra (L.) Koch Brassicaceae siinaficaa H C Sd dr 1 Or Salt

9. Calpurnia aurea

(Ait.)Benth.

Fabaceae ceekaa S

W Rt Fr 1 Or None

10. Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae barbaree H C ZZ dr 1 Or Honey

11. Carduus leptacanthus

Fresen.

Asteraceae qoree- haree

H W Lf, Rt

dr 9 Na None

12. Carica papaya L. Caricaceae ‘papaya’ T C Sd dr 1

Or None

13. Caylusea abyssinica

(Fresen.) Fisch. & Mey.

Resedaceae reencii H W W

Fr 6 An None

14. Chenopodium schraderianum Schult

Chenopodiace ae

qoricha gondaa

H W Lf Fr 9 Na None

15. Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

Asteraceae qoree- haree

H W Rt Fr 1

Or None

16. Clausena anisata

(Willd.)Benth.

17. Clerodendrum myricoides

(Hochst.) Vatke

18. Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach.

Rutaceae ulumayii S

h Lamiaceae ulee haree S h

Euphorbiaceae ulee lonii S

W Rt Fr 1 Or A.africanu s

W Rt Fr 1 Or Garlic

W Lx Fr 6 Au None

19. Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich. Cucurbitaceae hiddi hooloo

C W Rt Fr 1 Or None l

20. Cyathula uncinulata

(Schrad.) Schinz

Amaranthacea e

maxanne H W Rt Fr 1 Or

21. Cucurbita pepo L. Cucurbitaceae dabaqula H C Sd dr 1 Or None

22. Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Des. ex Wild & Drum.

Vitaceae hidda boffa

H W Ss Fr 1 Or Salt

23. Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae asangra H W Lf Fr 7 Na Butter

24. Discopodium penninervium Hochst.

25. Dracaena afromontana

Mildbr.

Solanaceae cacuunga T W Lf Fr 2 Na Butter

Dracenaceae afarfatuu T W Rt Fr 6 Or None

26. Echinops kebericho

Mesfin

Asteraceae qabaricho o

S W Rt Fr h /d

1 Or R. communis (Rt)

27. Ehertia cymosa Thonn. Boraginaceae ulagaa T W Rt Fr 1 Or Salt

28. Euphorbia ampliphylla

Pax

29. Foeniculum vulgare

Miller

Euphorbiaceae adamii T W Lx Fr 6 Or None

Apiaceae insilala H C Lf Fr 4 Na None

30. Galineria saxifraga

(Hochst.) Bridson

Rubiaceae mixo T W Rt Fr 1 Or None

31. Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich

32. Kalanchoe petitiana A.

Rich.

33. Lagenaria siceraria

(Molina) Standi.

Fabaceae qoricha dingeteny a

Crassulaceae andawula a

Cucurbitaceae buqehadh

a’a

H W Rt Fr 4 Or None

H W Lf Fr 5 An None

H W Sd dr 1 Or None

34. Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae fecoo H C Sd dr 9 Na None

35. Mentha aquatica L. Lamiaceae qoricha lagaa

H W Lf Fr 8 Na None

36. Millettia ferruginea

(Hochst.) Bak.

Fabaceae sotaloo T W B K

dr 4 Or None

37. Momordica foetida

Schumach

Cucurbitaceae nyata allattii

C W Lf Fr 2 Au None l

38. Nicandra physaloides (L.) Gaertn.

Solanaceae asangiraa H W Sd dr 7 or None

39. Nigella sativa L. Ranunculacea e

abasuda H C Sd dr 5 Or None

40. Ocimum lamiifolium L. Lamiaceae qoricha michii

S W Lf Fr 1 h 0

Na None

41. Peponium vogelii (Hook. f.) Engl.

42. Pterolobium stellatum

(Forssk.) Brenan

Cucurbitaceae buqesexan C

a l

Fabaceae harangam C

a l

W Lf Fr 9 Na

W St Fr 1 Or None

43. Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae qobboo H C Rt Fr 1 Or P.dodecan dra

44. Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae cilatamoo S

W St Fr 5 Or Garlic

45. Zehneria scabra (Linn.f.) Sond.

Cucurbitaceae hida adii C

W Lf Fr 1 Or No

46. Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae zinjibila H C Rh dr 8 Or Salt

Families of antimalarial traditional medicinal plants of Sibu Sire district in which Asteraceae

(24%) is dominant family followed by Alliceae, Pabaceae,Apocynaceae and Lamiaceae each

16% (Figure.2)

Fig. 2

Families of antimalarial traditional medicinal plants of Sibu Sire district

The habits of medicinal plants indicated that herbs (26 species; 56.52%) followed by shrubs (8 species; 17.39 (Figure.3)

Fig. 3

Habit of antimalarial traditional medicinal plants of Sibu Sire district

Indigenous knowledge of the communities and different informant groups

Males (5.45 ± 1.73) reported more medicinal plants in the Sibu Sire district than females (5.41 ± 1.41), even though females reported more medicinal plants overall. Upon analyzing the mean quantity of therapeutic plants reported by every group, the disparity was found to be non- significant (P > 0.05).

Ethnomedicinal plant parts used

Although different plant parts were used for remedy preparation, the majority (15citation,

31.91%) of preparations was from roots followed by leaf (13 citations, 27.65) (Figure. 4).

Fig. 4

Plant parts used in remedy preparation

The majority of plant parts (69.56%) utilized in the manufacture of the medicine was freshly collected, with dried portions coming in second (19.56) (Figure. 4).

Fig. 4

Condition of remedy preparation of medicinal plants used to treat malariain in Sibu

Sire district

Modes of remedy preparation and application

Traditional healers in the study area reported that they follow various ways of remedy preparation. The major modes of remedy preparation were decoction (43.30%) followed by concoction (10.86%%)( Figure. 5).

Fig. 5

Method of remedy preparation and application of medicinal plants used for malaria treatment and prevention in Sibu Sire district

Routes of remedy administration, dosages and antidotes

Medicinal plant extracts were prepared in various ways. Oral application (32 preparations, or

69.56%) was the most common and well-represented mode of administration; nasal application

(10 preparations, or 21.73%) was the next most common mode (Figure. 6).

Fig. 6

Route of remedy application of medicinal plants used to treat and prevent malaria in

Sibu Sire district

Standardized doses are not applied to the majority of medicinal plants that are prescribed and administered to patients.

However, it was noted that patients visiting local healers had their approximate dosages (without any set guidelines) selected by their age, sex, and physical appearance. Some medicinal plant preparations were said to be measured in handfuls, spoonfuls,

or finger-sized quantities, while others were said to be measured in miniature cups, known locally as shinii buna (Afan Oromo), which is a reference to plastic jugs or standard coffee cups.

32 citations, or 69.56%, showed that the majority of herbal treatment products did not contain any additives. The most often reported additions in herbal treatment mixtures were salt (13.04%), followed by other plants (6.42%) (Figure. 7).

Fig. 7

Additives to herbal remedies of medicinal plants used for antimalarial in Sibu sire district

Discussion

The local populations used a wide range of traditional human medicinal plants, including around

46 species from 46 genera and 24 families. These are accompanied by a wealth of local knowledge about the resources and their uses. When compared to other groups in Ethiopia, the study community makes greater use of the medicinal flora, that is, Hawassa Zuria district, Southern Ethiopia who used 25 species (Banchiamlak Nigussie and, Young-Dong Kim,

2019)and Sidama people who used 42 species (Solomon Asnake et al., 2016), community of Jima Town who used 21 species (Eyob Millionet al., 2022). This may suggest that the study population is more reliant on traditional medicinal plants for their basic healthcare requirements, or that there is a wider diversity of flora. In contrast to these groups, where fewer medicinal plants were reported, it might also suggest that traditional medicinal plants and the knowledge that goes along with them are less compromised in the research area.

Similar studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia (Tilahun Teklehaymanot and Mirutse Giday,

2007; Mirutse Giday et al., 2009; Mohammed Adefa and Berhanu Abraha, 2011; Girmay Zenebe et al., 2012; Mohammed Adefa and Seyoum Getaneh, 2013; Anteneh Belayneh and Negussie Bussa, 2014); and Berhane Kidane et al., 2014) indicate that the plant families Cucurbitaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Solanaceae are the contributors of a higher number of species used for medicinal purposes. This could be due to the fact that these families are more species abundant in the region overall or that the representative species in these families have higher concentrations of active chemicals.

The study's findings indicated a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the average number of medicinal plants reported by the three districts' various age groups. In the research district, older individuals (5.27 ± 1.71, 5.25 ± 1.6, and 5.43 ± 1.70) still possess a stronger indigenous knowledge of using medicinal plants than younger people (3.74 ± 1.69, 4.05 ± 1.46, and 3.86 ± 1.60). The ethnobotanical knowledge of the medicinal plants in the study community is passed down from older members of the community to younger members at the household level, much like in any other traditional African society (Fekadu Fullas, 2001). Similarly, the research district's found substantial differences (p < 0.05) demonstrated the study community's progressive loss of traditional knowledge about therapeutic plants. Teferi Gedif and Hahn (2003), Mirutse Giday et al. (2009a), Tilahun Teklehaymanot (2009), Ermias Lulekal et al. (2013), and others also reported findings along these lines. Data analysis showed a significant difference (p = 0.002) between key informants and general informants (mean = 7.73 ± 1.67) for the study district. This may have to do with the importance of traditional wisdom and the utmost discretion when employing medicinal plants in the case of key informants as compared to general informants.

In a similar vein, the findings indicated a significant difference (p < 0.05) between respondents who were near and far from a health center and those who were literate and iterate. The average number of medicinal plants reported by illiterate individuals and those who live distant from health centers is higher than that of literate people and those who live close to one. It was discovered that literate people in the research area knew less about medicinal plants than uneducated people since the latter are less likely to have been exposed to modernization (Teferi Gedif and Hahn, 2003; Mirutse Giday et al., 2009; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013). Nonetheless,

Mirutse Giday et al. (2009) found no evidence of significant differences (p > 0.05). The study found a difference in plant knowledge between Bench informants who lived in kebeles that were less than one kilometer away from a nearby road or modern healthcare center (mean = 0.6 ±

0.0002) and those who lived in kebeles that were between six and eight kilometers away (mean =

0.7 ± 0.0003). This may suggest that residential areas are not sufficiently removed from roads and healthcare facilities—roughly 6 to 8 km—to encourage residents to focus more on their traditional medical practices and, consequently, gain a deeper understanding of them than residents living a mere 1 km away (Mirutse Giday et al., 2009). Nonetheless, consistent with the findings of the present investigation, prior research has indicated a favorable correlation between proximity to contemporary medical facilities and indigenous expertise (Bussmann et al., 2006 and Feikin et al., 2009).

Of all the therapeutic plants, only 37 (80.43%) species were gathered from their natural habitat. Of the research area's medicinal plants, about 19.56% (9 species) are grown for human use. Most of the medicinal plants utilized in the communities under research were taken from the wild, according to multiple studies (Girmay Zenebe et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2012; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013; Reta Regassa, 2013; Adnan et al., 2014 and Beltran et al., 2014). These results are corroborated by the medicinal plant habitats in the study area.

In the study area, the most common plant habit used to prepare remedies was herbalism. This can be as a result of their accessibility and superior therapeutic efficacy as compared to alternative growth forms or habits. The results are consistent with the overall trend of herbaceous species dominance observed in the majority of Ethiopia's medicinal plant inventories (Mirutse Giday et al., 2009; Mirutse Giday et al., 2010 and Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013).

The most often employed plant components for medicinal purposes are the roots (31.91%), followed by the leaves (27.65%). The scientific theory that roots typically contain large concentrations of bioactive substances explains why roots are preferred for preparing traditional treatments (Uprety et al., 2010).

The majority of plant components (69.56%) utilized in remedy production were freshly gathered. The broader usage of fresh materials was also suggested by other research carried out abroad (Haile Yineger et al., 2007; Miruste Giday et al., 2009; Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013). This may be

because leaves, which are mostly harvested from perennial shrubs and trees, are the component of the plant that is most extensively consumed and are thus available year-round. Using fresh materials frequently may also be an attempt to avoid losing volatile oils, whose content may decrease with drying (Miruste Giday et al., 2009).

The biological benefits of these applications may account for the majority of treatments in the research area being administered orally (32 preparations, 69.56%), followed by nasal application (10 preparations, 21.73%).

Furthermore, oral and nasal delivery systems enable a swift physiological response of prepared medications to pathogens, hence augmenting their therapeutic efficacy. According to reports, administering medicines orally and topically has been shown to improve their physiological responses to pathogens, hence boosting the medication's ability to heal. Studies by Debela Hunde et al. (2004), Kebu Balemie et al. (2004), Tilahun Teklehaymanot and Mirutse Giday (2007), Mohammed Adefa and Berhanu Abraha (2011), Anteneh Belayneh et al. (2012), Singh et al. (2012), Mohammed Adefa and Seyoum Getaneh (2013), Bano et al. (2014) have all reported findings that are comparable in this regard. Among other ingredients, herbal medicine mixtures included salt, additional herbs, honey, butter, sugar, and milk (Table

1). These might make medicines stickier or improve their palatability by altering their flavor and aroma to make them more palatable for external or dietary use.

The sole method to pass on the knowledge from generation to generation in the absence of documented pharmacopeia and since indigenous knowledge about the uses of medicinal plants is transferred orally rather than via any organized process. The younger generations of the community have little interest in the traditional healing system because of factors related to "modernization" and "economic reseasons," such as the establishment of a modern healthcare system and the expansion of schools, in addition to the fact that it offers little financial potential. They are pursuing other jobs instead. Other ethnic groups in the nation saw similar outcomes, according to studies by Ermias Lulekal et al. (2013), Mathewos Agize at al. (2013), d'Avigdoret al. (2014), Berhane Kidane et al. (2014), and Yibrah Tekle (2014).

Informants state that respondents either learn how to treat illnesses from their parents and grandparents or, in exceptional cases, from skilled seniors for a sizable payment in exchange. There are other Ethiopian communities that are aware of the dangers facing traditional herbal therapy (Teferi Flatie et al., 2009 and d'Avigdoret al., 2014). Similar tendencies of medicinal

plant knowledge acquisition, transmission mechanisms, and conservation concerns were observed in other ethnobotanical surveys conducted elsewhere (Ermias Lulekal et al., 2013; d’Avigdoret al., 2014 and Berhane Kidane et al., 2014).

In light of this, this study was emphasized the native ethno botanical knowledge of the study communities while also making a significant contribution to future research and plant resource protection.

Conclusions

Results underscore that the use of medicinal plants for malaria treatment and prevention, is still well-liked and more widely practically utilized. and the basic healthcare needs of the local population are met by medicinal plants. Dependency on these plant resources is linked to the plants' perceived efficacy, accessibility, and cultural significance. Cucurbitaceae was the family with the most representation, followed by Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, and Cucurbitaceae. The majority of species are found to grow as herbs, with trees, shrubs, and lianas following. The majority of plant parts utilized in the manufacture of remedies are roots, followed by leaves. The majority of the plant parts used to create remedies were recently picked. However, it is discovered that the majority of preparations involve decoction and then concoction.

Medicinal plant information is still passed down verbally, without written documentation. Most of the documented species of medicinal plants were found in the wild. Elderly people in the research region still possess a stronger indigenous knowledge of using therapeutic herbs than do younger people. In the same way, key informants in the surveyed area knew more than general informants did. Since the literate are more likely to have been exposed to modernization, it was discovered that the illiterate in the research area knew more about therapeutic plants than the literate. The outcome necessitates an attempt to address the issue by means of ongoing professional assistance and community training, with the goal of conserving customary medical knowledge and practices through methodical documentation.

Recommendations

Preventing the adverse effects of misuse of species requires integrated initiatives that involve the local communities in the sustainable use of their resources. Local residents with expertise and

experience ought to be involved in this process.

Coordination of conservation efforts is required, with an emphasis on both in-situ and ex-situ techniques, taking into account the expertise, interests, and goals of the local community. In order to protect these priceless resources before they are lost forever, it is also advised that the forestry departments of the federal, regional, and local governments take decisive action. .Furthermore, detail phytochemical screening, phytotoxicity and pharmacological study is required to supplement this survey results.

Acknowledgement

Local informants of the study district are duly acknowledged for their indigenous knowledge on the matter.

Declarations

Ethics statement

Not applicable

Consent to publish

All authors and subjects that they agree to have their work or identifiable information published. Consent to participate

Not applicable

Author Contribution

TR, MD &OK generated the concept and wrote the proposal, participated in data collection, TR wrote the final result, analyses, and managed the finance processes. TR and MD participated in preparing the manuscript.

Data Availability

All data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper.

Refferences

Adnan M, Ullah I, Tariq A, Murad W, Azizullah A, Khan AL, Ali N. (2014).

Ethnomedicine use. in the war affected region of northwest Pakistan. J of.

Ethnobiology. and Ethnomedicine, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-16

Anteneh B, Negussie B. Ethnomedicinal plants used to treat human ailments in the prehistoric place of Harla and Dengego valleys, eastern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2014;10:18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-18.

Banchiamlak N, Tefera, Young-Dong K. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used as antimalarial and repellent by Sidama. people of Hawassa Zuria district; 2019.

Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Complementary.

Mediciresearch. 10:1326.10.5455/jcmr.20181102063241.

Bano A, Ahmad M, Hadda TB, Saboor A, Sultana S, Zafar M. Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the Skardu Valley at high altitudeof Karakoram- Himalayan range. Pakistan Journal Ethnobiol andEthnomedicine. 2014;10:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-43.

Beltran L, Ortiz A, Mariano N, Maldonado B, Reyes V. Factors affecting ethnobotanical knowledge in a mestizo community of the Sierra de HuautlaBiosphere Reserve. Mexico Journal Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine. 2014;10:14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-14.

Berhane K, van Andel T. L.J.G., Zemede A. (2014).Use and management of traditional medicinal plants by Maale and Ari ethnic communities in southern Ethiopia.Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10:46. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-46

Bussmann RW, Genevieve GG, Solio J, Lutura M, Lutuluo R, Kunguru K, Wood N, Mathenge S. Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara. Kenya J Ethnobio Ethnomed. 2006;2:22.

https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-2-22

Ceravolo IP, Aguiar AC, Adebayo JO, Krettli AU. Studies on Activities and Chemical Characterization of Medicinal Plants in Search for New Antimalarials: A Ten YeaReview on Ethnopharmacology. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:734263. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.734263.

Chali BU, Hasho A, Koricha NB, Mukudai Y. (2021). Preference and practice of traditional medicine and associated factors in Jimma town, Southwest Ethiopia. Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2021;2021. 10.1155/2021/9962892

Crompton PD, Moebius J, Portugal S, Waisberg M, Hart G. Garver, L. S. (2014).

Malaria Immunity in Man and Mosquito. Insights into Unsolved Mysteries of a Deadly Infectious Disease. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 32, 157–187. 10.1146/annurev- immunol- 032713 – 12022.

C.S.A. (2006). The Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey, Central Statistical Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2006.

Dagne A, Belachew G. (2019). Ethnobotanical survey of plants traditionally used for malaria.

prevention and treatment in indigenous villages of Tepi Town South West Ethiopia. J Pharmacognosy Phytother 11: 9–16. http://DOI:10.5897/JPP2018.0532

Ermias L, Zemede A, Ensermu K, van Damme P. (2013). Ethnomedicinal study.

of plants used for. human ailments in Ankober District, North Shewa Zone, Amhara.

Region E. J Ethnobiologyand Ethnomed, 9:63. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-63

Feikin DR, Nguyen LM, Adazu K, Ombok M, Audi A, Slutsker, Lindblade KA. The impact of distance of residence from a peripheralhealth facility on pediatric health utilisation in rural western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health. 2009;14:54–61. 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2008.02193.x.

FMOH. (2012. National malaria guideline. 3. Addis Ababa: FMOH; 2012.

FMOH. (2015). Proceedings of the annual review meeting, Malaria symposium and world malaria day, Hawassa, SNNPR, 2015.

Girmay, Z., Mohammed, Z., & Zewdie, S. (2012). An Ethnobotanical	Study	of
Medicinal Plants in Asgede Tsimbila	District,	Northwestern

Tigray,Northern Ethiopia. Ethnobotany Research & Applications,10:305–320.

Retrieved from https://ethnobotanyjournal.org/index.php/era/article/view/653

Graz, B., Kitua, A. Y., Malebo, H. M. (2011). To what extent can traditional medicine contribute a complementary or alternative solution to malaria control programmes? Malar J.

2011;10:S6. 10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S6

Ketema, T., Bacha, K., Birhanu ,T., Petros, B. (2009). Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax malaria in Serbo town, Jimma zone, south-west Ethiopia. Malar J. 2009;8:177. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-8-177

Ketema, T., Etana, D., Spiridoula, A., Adugna, T., Gebeyehu, G., Houdijk, J.G.M. (2013). Ethno-medicinal study of plants used for treatment of human and livestock ailments by traditional healers in South Omo, Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 9:32. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-32

Million, E., Mulugeta, T., Umeta, B. (2021). Traditional Medicine Practice and Its Role in the

Management of Malaria in Jimma Town, Oromia, Ethiopia.Hindawi 15:

21872198.DOI https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S339782

Mirutse, Giday. (2001). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay peoplein Ethiopia. Skriftserie, 3:81–89.

Mirutse, G., Zemede, A., Zerihun, W., & Tilahun, T. (2009). Medicinal plant knowledge of the Bench ethnic group of Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical

investigation. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 5:34.

10.4314/sinet.v26i2.18208

Mohammed, A., Berhanu, A. (2011).Ethnobotanical Survey of Traditional Medicinal Plants in Tehuledere District, South Wollo, Ethiopia.Journal of Medicinal Plants

Research, 5:6233–6242. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-016-1070-8

Mohammed, A., Seyoum, G. (2013).Medicinal Plants Biodiversity and Local Healthcare Management System in Chencha District; Gamo Gofa, Ethiopia. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2:1.

Pan, Y., Litscher, G., Chan, K., Yu, Z. L., Chen, H. Q., Ko, K. M. (2014). Traditional medicines in the worldwherto go next? Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2014;2014:4.

10.1155/2014/739895

Reta, R. (2013). Assessment of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plant practice andmode of service delivery in Hawassa city, southern Ethiopia.Journal of Medicinal

Plants Research, 7:517–535. 10.5897/JMPR012.1126

Singh, M., Suryanshu, K., Singh, G., Dubey, A., & Chaitanya, R.

K.(2021).Plasmodium’sJourney through the Anopheles Mosquito: A ComprehensiveReview. Biochimie 181, 176–190. 10.1016/j.biochi.2020.12.009

Teferi, G., & Hahn, H. (2003).The use of medicinal plants in self-care in rural central

Ethiopia.J. Ethnopharmacol., 87:155–161. 10.1016/s0378-8741(03)00109-0

Tilahun, T., & Mirutse, G. (2007).Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by people in Zegie Peninsula, Northwestern Ethiopia.Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 3:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-3-12

Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Boon, E. K., Yadav, S., & Shrestha, K.K. (2010).Indigenous use and

bio-efficacy of medicinal plants in the Rasuwa District, Central Nepal.

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 6:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-3

WHO (2020).World Malaria Report 2020. Switzerland: World Health Organization. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/ 9789240015791

WHO (2013).. Malaria controls in humanitarian emergencies: an inter-agency handbook-2 nd ed. Geneva, Switzerland, 201

Yes