Department of Computer and Software Engineering,

School of ICT,

College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

Email: t.ntalindwa@ur.ac.rw

Inspire Educate and Empower Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

Email: uwidiane0909@gmail.com

Abstract

The research was conducted accessibility and application of ICT by women at the household level. This knowledge was directed to explore the factors that may be hindering women from accessing and using mobile phones in Kigarama Sector, Kicukiro District.

The focus group discussions were conducted to come together to qualitative data which stayed evaluated by NVIVO qualitative inquiry software. Seven themes were identified after the analysis of the qualitative data: 1) Beliefs and social and cultural norms, 2) Socioeconomic status, 3) Mobile phone call and text harassment, 4) Digital skills and Language gap, 5) Gender power relation, 6) Gender-based violence, and 7) Time management.

The findings revealed that some women are facing challenges regarding the utilization and accessibility of mobile phones at home due to unpaid care work created by gender roles about gender power relations the findings revealed that there are cultural issues around mobile phone use by women. Digital inequality that exists at home and within the community reinforces women to stay disadvantaged and behind in the labor market.

Future research could further examine the difference between the ages of women and comparison with males.

Key words:

Gender, ICT, digital divide, mobile phone, ICT inclusion, accessibility

Millions of women are still without cell phones globally, most of which are in LMICs owning on Low-medium-income countries (LMCs). Currently, fewer women than males own a cell phone (GSM Association, 2020) in Africa. Even while the number of women owning smartphones has increased, many of them are still unaware of all the features available (Grameen Foundation, 2014). The study by Jarvenpaa & Lang, (2005) documented many consumers find it difficult to comprehend that they won't lose all of their money if they lose their cell phone.

In addition to not always being able to keep information private from family members, especially spouses, many women do not have exclusive usage of a phone (GSM Association, 2020).

Moreover, the Groupe Speciale Mobile Association (GSMA) report Bridging the Gender Gap on mobile access and usage indicates that there is still a 14% gender gap in mobile phone ownership. Some of the primary reasons why women don't possess or utilize as much as males are as follows: Cost (credit and portable) Women are cost-conscious (Jankowski, 2014).

Women have limited resources and must make decisions in the face of conflicting demands. The cost and usage of mobile phones have been identified by women as obstacles. Moreover, the mobile operators would boost usage, reevaluate their plans (Bakhmat, 2022). Giving women inexpensive phones with off-peak usage or a family and friends package can help them get mobile phones. A considerable number of metropolitan respondents to the GSMA research reported having trouble connecting, even though this issue is primarily perceived as rural. This is probably because of network congestion. Safety and harassment (GSMA, 2024). Operator and agent confidence Women have reported a barrier to ownership due to their lack of faith in the Mobile Network Operator, which is strongly related to issues with network coverage (Abdul Rani et al., 2019). Factors like credit expiration, pricing schemes that are not transparent, and compelled usage because of little competition (especially in rural regions) could be highlighted as critical factors that contribute to the gender digital divide. The different levels of digital literacy among household members are still challenging in many African societies (Krönke, 2020). However, many women continue to face sociocultural restrictions that prevent them from accessing or owning a cell phone, which further exacerbates the digital divide (Tusińska, 2021).

In many communities, traditional gender roles dictate who can use technology, often relegating women to subordinate positions in decision-making regarding technology use. This not only limits their access to vital information and communication tools but also reinforces existing inequalities.

Empowering women to be agents of change within their communities can help to dismantle barriers, making technology more accessible and acceptable for female users (Jones et al., 2020).

The study by Rafiq et al., (2021), highlighted Furthermore, the Internet has often been used by women primarily for information-seeking activities driven by social pressures and personal interests, rather than as a tool for broader educational and professional development.

This limited engagement restricts their ability to fully leverage the internet for academic pursuits, skill enhancement, and career advancement. To foster genuine progress, it is crucial to create supportive environments that encourage women to utilize technology not just for social purposes, but as a means to empower themselves academically and professionally. Promoting digital literacy programs tailored to women's needs and enhancing their engagement with technology, we can help bridge the gap and facilitate their advancement in education and the workforce (Capel et al., 2017).

According to Bitegeko et al., (2024), the majority of graduate students lack the skills and knowledge required to ensure that technology is accessible. The Gendered Digital Divide manifests when women try to use and access information and communication technologies (ICTs), but they encounter more obstacles or have less access to resources (Alozie & Akpan-Obong, 2017).

Mariscal et al., (2019) claim that substantial sociocultural barriers and costs are obstacles to women's access. The provision and availability of digital services via portable communication devices, including cell phones, is referred to as mobile banking (Rahman et al., 2023).

Some cultures, forbid women from using mobile banking due to social and cultural reasons. Still, evidence is mounting that these women stand to gain socially, familiarly, and personally from having access to internet technology (Mametja et al., 2023). However, due to differences in rural and urban areas, as well as cultural and economic limitations, developing countries face numerous developmental challenges (Asian Development Bank, 2022).

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a key driver of Rwanda's economic growth and transformation into a knowledge-based economy. The government has prioritized ICT to achieve its goal of becoming an upper-middle income country by 2035 (MINECOFIN, 2011).

Throughout the first two decades of the century, Rwanda's mobile cellular subscriber rate per 100 residents has increased significantly, rising from almost zero to over 80 between 2000 and 2020. For every 100 citizens in the nation, there were roughly 91 registered mobile subscriptions in 2023 (Petroc Taylor, 2024).

This is supported by the report of Rwanda Utility Regulatory Agency (RURA) that says, the number of active mobile-cellular telephone subscriptions1 in Rwanda increased from 11,714,982 as of June 2023 up to 12,125,228 SIM cards recorded at the end of July 2023 which shows an increase of 3.5%.

The postpaid subscriptions increased from 169,697 as of June 2023 to 169,848 SIM cards as of July 2023 and the prepaid subscriptions increased up to 11,955,380 as of July 2023 in comparison to 11,545,285 SIM cards published at the end of June 2023 (RURA, 2023).

Despite significant progress in mobile phone penetration in Rwanda and other LMICs, a persistent gender gap remains in mobile phone access and usage among women. This disparity is driven by a combination of sociocultural, economic, digital literacy, and trust-related factors. Many women either do not own mobile phones or do not fully utilize their features due to cost sensitivity, limited digital literacy, safety concerns, lack of exclusive use, and sociocultural restrictions. These barriers not only reinforce existing inequalities but also prevent women from leveraging mobile technology for educational, economic, and personal empowerment.

While numerous global and regional studies have documented the gender digital divide, there is a lack of context-specific research focused on Rwanda that holistically examines the multifaceted barriers women face in accessing and using mobile phones. Particularly missing is an exploration of how sociocultural norms, trust in mobile operators, and digital literacy intersect with economic constraints to limit women's mobile phone use. Furthermore, existing literature often emphasizes ownership statistics but offers limited insights into usage patterns, perceptions, and experiences of Rwandan women with mobile technology. This study aims to fill this gap by providing an in-depth, localized understanding of the barriers hindering women's mobile phone access and use in Rwanda.

To explore the barriers hindering women’s access to and use of mobile phones in Rwanda, this study adopted a qualitative case study design, guided by Creswell's framework as cited in Ishtiaq,( 2019). This approach was selected to gain in-depth insights into women's perspectives on the factors influencing the gender digital divide within households. Given the social and contextual complexity of gender and technology access, a qualitative methodology was deemed most appropriate for capturing nuanced, lived experiences.

The study employed qualitative research design. Following Croswell recommended by Ishtiaq,( 2019). The objective of this research is to comprehend women's perspectives regarding the elements influencing the gender gap in digital access within households. The study specifically concentrates on the accessibility and utilization of mobile phones in Rwanda. In this study, we adopted the qualitative case study approach using Focus groups discussions, interviews and documentation.

Bwerankori and Kigarama cells of one sector Kigarama in Kicukiro District in Kigali city are settings of this study. One of the criteria for the selection of this location is proximity. The location was easy for the researcher to reach. Secondly, the selection of two cell aimed to better reflect the location environment in terms of gender responsiveness in both rural and urban domains to ensure diversity and gather rich information.

This region is located in the southeastern part of Kigali, the capital of Rwanda. It consists of ten sectors of administration, namely Kagarama, Niboye, Gatenga, Gikondo, Gahanga, Kanombe, Nyarugunga, Kigarama, Masaka, along with 41 cells (Utugali) and 333 Administrative villages (Imidugudu). Encompassing a total area of 166.7 square kilometers, the district is home to approximately 319,661 residents. It was made official through Organic Law n°29/2005, which organized Organizational Structure of the Republic of Rwanda during the initiation of the decentralization’s second phase in January 2006.

In this study the population consist of men and women from Kigarama Sector (Bwerankori, Karugira and Kigarama cells). The inclusion criteria were to have at least one mobile phone among household members.

In this qualitative study, 24 participants were participating in three Focus Group Discussions( FGDs). Each group had 8 participants that were selected purposively. Men were included to get diverse information. Those FGDs took place at Cell office in a quiet room to capture all information given by participant. To triangulate the result from focus groups, we interviewed four key informants as follows: 1) one representative of gender at the Sector level, 2) one person who is in charge of ICT promotion at MIGEPROF, 3) one person at Empower Rwanda, 3) one person from Ministry of ICT and Innovation and 4) one working-class woman who is a digital transformative influencer.

Data were straight gathered from the particular participants in focus group discussion and interviews with key informants. A set of predefined questions were used to guide the interview. The existence of diverse gender identities within internet user collectives that are mixed could have impacted the degree to which women participants openly shared their perspectives, particularly concerning matters of gender parity. I selected three groups of eight participants in which had one group of eight females alone from the Bwerankori cell, another group of eight females alone in Kigarama Cell, and one mixed group in which four were male and four are female at Karugira Cell.

The interview lasted between 30 to 40 minutes at their workplaces. To keep the data well used both written and audios records. The questions were open ended to capture all relevant data from the interviewees.

The analysis of the data collected from FGDs and interviews with key informants revealed the following themes: 1) Beliefs and social and cultural norms, 2) Socioeconomic status, 3) Mobile phone call and text harassment, 4) Digital skills and Language gap, 5) Gender power relation, 6) Gender-based violence, and 7) Time management.

While digital information and ICT are thought to be available to everyone, there are societies that restrict women's access to these resources. These obstacles are structural or societal in character, and they are significantly impacted by the political, social, and financial circumstances of a particular community.

According to the participants of the study, patriarchal attitudes and beliefs contribute to gender stereotypes regarding the use of mobile phone technology. For instance, certain parents scold their daughters for spending time on their phones, thereby directly or indirectly discouraging them from embracing technology from an early age. This early socialization can lead girls to develop a reluctance to pursue careers in technology.

Additionally, some individuals perceive ICT as a force that could introduce negative changes to their families and society. This is supported by one participant who said:

Women’s phone use is restricted by the limited set of socially acceptable applications that are exclusive to them, such talking to family, as opposed to men's use, which includes work, entertainment, and social connections.

This viewpoint is represented by a participant in a focus group discussion who said:

Accessibility Barriers It was suggested in the focus groups for women that the high cost of speak time and mobile data was the main barrier to entry. This made it difficult for one particular woman to use instant messaging services like WhatsApp even though she preferred to use Facebook more frequently. Two single mothers claimed that these costs made using their smartphones all but impossible. The use of digital technologies for socioeconomic goals is also influenced by gender norms.

This theme elucidates that women with higher levels of education, who come from larger families, and who have more disposable income are more likely to purchase a smartphone. There are changes in how males and females use phones, particularly at home. This is the group of people who own phones. When it comes to using their phones, women who are housewives and lack education face many challenges.

A young married woman said that because they are unable or unwilling to visit cell kiosks themselves, women frequently depend on males to give them mobile credit. She revealed that her husband is the only provider for their family and that he makes sure there isn't any money left over after paying for necessities like food so she can't buy credit.

Male behavior is the primary factor influencing the financial status of the human population at any given time and in any given country. It is only through him that the female obtains her share in the advancement of the race.

Some single mothers who are also the breadwinners are frequently anxious about putting food on the table for their families and themselves, which makes them less likely to use their phones frequently. This is supported by on participants who said:

Women risk being further excluded from the main socioeconomic advancements if they fail to recognize the importance of information and communication technology (ICT) and use it to actively contribute to the development of their nations.

Sexual harassment of women over the phone occurs both at work and at home. Text harassment is more common than other forms of offline stalking, and although those who get these texts exhibit discomfort, there is a higher level of acceptance for this form of harassment than for other forms. One major barrier that prevents women from owning and using mobile phones in their homes is harassment via phone calls. This is supported by a participant who said:

Another participant shared that she is a young married woman who used to be extremely skinny. However, after giving birth, she noticed that she had gained weight due to breastfeeding and family planning pills. She said that her husband was constantly criticizing her appearance, sending her pictures before and after the birth and calling her daughters "pussycats." Although she acknowledged that she should work on her fitness, the way her husband was treating her body had damaged her self-esteem to the point where she felt too insecure to take a selfie of her face. (Participant #3).

Communication is now easier and faster because to the widespread use of mobile phones. However, problems like unwanted and abusive contacts have also arisen as a result of this convenience. From continuous unwanted contact to threatening messages, mobile phone calls and text harassment cover a wide variety of actions. These behaviors have the potential to violate privacy, cause psychological anguish, and, in extreme situations, raise safety and legal issues. Addressing and lessening the negative effects of such harassment on people and society requires an understanding of its nature and ramifications.

The ability to utilize social media, a smartphone, the internet, and secure data in digital format media skills that are important to all ages and essential for day-to-day living and employment is less frequent among women. According to other participants, there exists a correlation between the economic situation of women and their level of education. The language barrier was highlighted by the majority of participants.

Improving levels of digital skills could be greatly increased by providing localized and language-appropriate training.

Participants also highlighted the problem of training in digital literacy which the found important to improve their levels of using digital tools. This was supported by one woman who said:

Women's lack of training in digital literacy highlights a larger inequity in access to technology, which perpetuates gender inequality in the digital sphere.

While technological advancements have significantly altered daily life, they have also created new opportunities for gender-based violence (GBV). The continuation of antiquated patriarchal beliefs continues to be a major cause of violence against women, including rape, even if mobile phones can enable abuse through monitoring, manipulation, and intimidation.

This is supported by a statement of one participants who said:

ICTs, are frequently praised for promoting opportunity, empowerment, and connectedness. These same tools, however, can be used as monitoring and control mechanisms in patriarchal homes. For example, mobile phones are occasionally used to impose old gender norms, limit women's autonomy, and monitor their communications. In many situations, ICTs might worsen preexisting power disparities rather than act as a bridge to freedom and equality. This weaponization emphasizes how important it is to have thoughtful conversations about how technology either supports or undermines structural injustices.

This study revealed that at home, women are overworked in their regular tasks. Domestic and caregiving responsibilities continue to be assigned primarily to women, which may impede women's empowerment and, in turn, impede progress toward gender equality in general. The relationship between femininity and caregiving appears ubiquitous, therefore the unequal allocation of unpaid care duties in Rwanda is not an isolated instance. This is supported by a male teacher who said:

Disparities between the sexes in how they use ICT technologies are a reflection of larger cultural and societal norms that influence gendered expectations and actions. While women are more likely to utilize ICTs for managing home duties, preserving social contacts, and assisting with educational endeavors, men frequently use them for networking, amusement, and career progress. Traditional gender roles, which affect access to technology and how it is incorporated into daily life, are the cause of these disparities.

Many women struggle to balance their obligations to their families and their own growth, particularly when it comes to picking up new digital skills.

This draws attention to the unseen work that women frequently do in the home, where their availability is generally assumed. The digital divide is widened as a result of the frequent postponement or sacrifice of opportunities to increase digital competency. In addition to providing equal access to resources, addressing this issue calls for a change in the way society views time management and caregiving.

This study examined how women view mobile phones and the barriers that hinder them to access and use digital tools at the household level. The triangulation of the collected data highlighted five themes: 1) Beliefs and social and cultural norms, 2) Socioeconomic status, 3) Mobile phone call and text harassment, 4) Digital skills and Language gap, 5) Gender power relation, 6) Gender-based violence, and 7) Time management.

The findings suggested that women face specific obstacles when it comes to using and obtaining a mobile phone at home because of unpaid care obligations resulting from gender norms. According to the report by Women (2017), women perform unpaid caregiving 2.5 times more frequently than males. Men and women use technology differently, according to a male participant who made this statement during the focus group discussion (FGD), women use technology more sluggishly than men do.

The social standards and behavioral expectations deemed appropriate for individuals of a particular gender in a given society are known as gender roles. According to the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), these criteria often dictate the tasks that are assigned to men, women, boys, and girls (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2023).

Modern countries need to address the critical problem of digital exclusion, which is a major cause of inequality outside of the digital world. Variations in the way that digital technology is adopted can exacerbate differences in a range of aspects of living (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2011).

The findings of this research demonstrate that, in line with other studies, the level of education greatly influences the use and accessibility of digital tools, especially mobile phones. Because of this linguistic barrier, women are subsequently less likely to understand how to use a smartphone and comprehend its contents (Tyers-Chowdury & Binder, 2021).

Even though women's use of cell phones and the internet has expanded dramatically, there is still a gender gap in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). A 15% difference in mobile ownership and a 42% disparity in mobile internet usage can be attributed to this gender divide (GSMA, 2023). The results of this research once again demonstrated how socioeconomic position affects things. Women's financial stability is lower, which prevents them from purchasing phones and gaining daily credit (Mametja et al., 2023).

It is highlighted in this study that women are subjected to harassment via phone calls, texts, images, and videos, which makes it difficult for them to engage in free-form conversations on various apps like Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp. Many women also report experiencing mistreatment on social media platforms (Williams et al., 2024).

Although there is growing evidence to corroborate this assertion (Draucker and Martsolf 2010; Korchmaros et al. 2013), cell phones have been the most commonly reported type of technology used to stalk, harass, and threaten dating partners. Digital inequality perpetuates women's disconnection from the workforce and makes them fall behind in the home and community.

It was anticipated that women would surpass men once budgets and connectivity costs were lowered because they had less purchasing power and financial freedom than men (UNESCO, 2019).

ICT is directly related to to actively participating in the growth of the economy and society, it is imperative to ensure that women have access to and utilize it.

For accurate information from data collection, the study would collect data from all districts of Rwanda. However, the researcher selected one sector of the Kicukiro District as the sample size. Additionally, this is a qualitative study that does not show numerical numbers for generalization. Despite of discussed weaknesses, the study has the following strengths:

Information and communication technology usage has changed people's perspectives on life and improved both men's and women's financial security and quality of life. Some males find it easier to use techniques for successful communication, which improves family relations. This suggests that women are taking use of digital opportunities to overcome systemic disparities currently in place. ICT use benefits women in many domains and advances society as a whole. Moreover, technology enables them to effectively manage a range of tasks.

The research reveals a disparity in mobile phone access within Rwandan households, stemming from various factors such as gender-based social norms, cultural barriers, language hurdles, patriarchal ideologies, and women's lower economic status. Moreover, in rural areas with scant resources, restricted mobile phone availability and usage result from persistent socioeconomic challenges. Women often cite time constraints due to unpaid caregiving responsibilities as a reason for infrequent phone usage. Additionally, women lacking formal education encounter difficulties in utilizing their phones, often resorting to basic functions like answering calls by pressing the green button, as indicated by the study.

The study informs other researchers and the policy makers in setting strategies to create equal alternatives to use the digital tools and services for both males and females. Future research could further examine the difference between the ages of women and comparison with males.