Climate Responsive Courtyard Design for Urban Sustainability in Five Marla Houses in Rawalpindi Pakistan

ErumZareen

MS Student

1Emailerum.nust@gmail.com

Assistant professor

ShahbazAltaf1✉Emailshahbaz.altaf@nice.nust.edu.pk

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Civil and Environmental EngineeringNational University of Sciences & TechnologyIslamabad

Erum Zareen¹ and Shahbaz Altaf*¹

¹Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad.

*Corresponding Author

Shahbaz Altaf

Assistant professor

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad.

Email: shahbaz.altaf@nice.nust.edu.pk

Erum Zareen

MS Student

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad.

Email: erum.nust@gmail.com

Climate Responsive Courtyard Design for Urban Sustainability: Evidence from 5 Marla Houses in Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Abstract

Rapid urbanization and climate change have dramatically increased energy consumption in South Asian residential buildings. Traditional courtyard houses, once common in the region, provided passive cooling solutions that have largely been abandoned in favor of maximizing built up floor area. This mixed methods study examines the thermal performance and social acceptability of courtyard integration in 5 Marla (≈ 125 m²) urban houses in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Building performance simulations compare a conventional house with a courtyard integrated design featuring mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry. Survey results demonstrate that compact courtyards integrated with vernacular materials offer significant potential for enhancing natural cooling, which in turn reduces the need for mechanical energy consumption. This reduction in energy use contributes significantly to urban sustainability by lowering carbon emissions and improving environmental quality in space-constrained environments. The findings highlight the importance of climate-responsive design rooted in local traditions as a pathway for sustainable urban development.

Keywords:

Climate responsive design

Urban sustainability

Vernacular architecture

courtyard houses

Passive cooling

Pakistan

1. Introduction

The built environment stands at the center of global sustainability challenges. Buildings consume over one-third of the world's energy and emit approximately 30% of CO2, with mechanical heating and cooling systems responsible for the largest amount of energy use in the residential sector. (IEA, 2023). Nowhere are these challenges more acute than in rapidly urbanizing South Asia, where cities like Rawalpindi, Pakistan, are experiencing rising temperatures, urban heat islands, and, consequently, increasing energy demand for indoor cooling (Khan et al., 2020; UN-Habitat, 2021).

Historically, South Asian courtyard houses provided natural ventilation and passive cooling, harmonizing with the local climate (Figs. 1 & 2). Modern building patterns, however, have prioritized maximizing built-up areas at the expense of these climate-responsive elements. The application of passive methods like natural ventilation and use of solar orientation to lower energy consumption is part of a design philosophy that integrates building activities with the local climatic environment as shown in Fig. 2. The strategy anticipates both the comfort of the occupants and the sustainability of the environment, thus reducing the use of artificial air-conditioning and heating systems. (Green Building & Design Magazine, 2024). As a result, contemporary urban housing is increasingly reliant on energy-intensive mechanical systems, exacerbating environmental and economic pressures (Zhu et al., 2022).

Traditional South Asian courtyard houses exhibited impressive climate-responsive features, controlling internal temperature through passive solar designs, thermal mass, and natural ventilation systems (Salman et al., 2018). Thermal mass is the ability of a material to receive, retain and later de-give heat energy to maintain the temperatures of the interiors. Through the absorption of surplus heat throughout the day and its release at night or during cooler times of the day (Alayed et al., 2022). These vernacular solutions provided comfy indoor environments, having little energy input but at the same time the many social activities such as family get-togethers and community weaving or craftwork that often took place in the shaded courtyard spaces and served as safe outdoor play areas were also provided. Nevertheless, the current urbanization has discarded these principles in favor of sealed, mechanically conditioned areas, which not only raise the cost of energy but also carbon emissions (Lazarus Adua et al., 2024)

The thermal performance of courtyards in different climatic regimes has been recorded in many recent studies. (Taleghani, 2014; Al-Hafith et al., 2022). Studies in arid and semi-arid areas have shown cooling load reductions of between 20 and 30 percent in courtyard houses compared to traditional building designs. (Almahmoud, et al., 2024; Taleb et al., 2022). Traditional building designs often rely on closed, mechanically ventilated rooms with insufficient natural ventilation and thermal mass, which leads to increased energy usage and reduced comfort of occupants. (Taleghani, et al., 2014). Nonetheless, most studies have focused on bigger plots, thus creating a huge knowledge gap on the performance of courtyards in the urban environment that is spatially limited, as is the case in Pakistani cities.

This research paper attempts to fill this gap between tradition and modernity by assessing the potential of courtyard integration in compact urban residential buildings. By combining household surveys and building performance simulations, this study is aimed at providing evidence-based recommendations for climate-resilient urban housing in Pakistan. Traditional South Asian courtyard houses demonstrated remarkable climate-responsive capabilities, moderating internal temperatures through passive solar design, thermal mass, and natural ventilation strategies (Salman et al., 2018). These vernacular designs delivered low-energy thermal comfort and provided settings for daily social interactions and cultural rituals.

However, contemporary urban development has largely abandoned these principles in favor of sealed, mechanically conditioned spaces that increase both energy costs and carbon emissions. Thus, this study addresses three critical research questions: 1) How do courtyards contribute to climate change adaptation within residential building design in Rawalpindi? 2) What impact do courtyards have on enhancing indoor thermal comfort in 5 Marla urban houses? and 3) How can courtyard configurations be optimized to improve energy efficiency and advance climate resilient residential design? The overall goal is to evaluate the effectiveness of climate-responsive courtyard design, based on the vernacular architecture of Pakistan, to enhance thermal comfort and save energy consumption in five-Marla (square foot) urban dwellings, contributing to broader urban sustainability goals.

2. Literature Review

Urban sustainability is creating cities that suit current demands without jeopardizing future prosperity. Climate-responsive design is a cornerstone of this vision, as it seeks to harmonize built environments with local climatic conditions, reducing environmental impact while enhancing human comfort (Firoozi et al., 2024). Rather than imposing standardized, energy-intensive solutions, climate-responsive strategies leverage natural elements such as sun orientation, wind, and thermal mass to create resilient and pleasant spaces (Sanagustín-Fons et al., 2025).

Rapid urban growth, particularly in developing regions, has caused increased energy usage, production of greenhouse gases, and the propagation of urban heat islands. (IEA, 2023; Khan et al., 2020; Gunasekaran & Priya, 2025). The above issues are compounded by an existing tendency in modern architecture to focus on aesthetic values and spatial density, as opposed to environmental performance, often disregarding the rich experience provided by vernacular design cultures. With the trends of rapid urbanization, the problem of critical concern arises: how to make sure that the developmental process will not result in the destruction of the environment? Climate-responsive design is a feasible solution to the attainment of sustainable urbanism, a combination of environmental conservation and financial viability. (Baker & Steemers et al., 2003).

Traditional architectural practices, in hot and arid climates, have long proved the possibilities of buildings to adapt to the prevalent climate conditions by passive means, such as courtyards, thick masonry, and natural ventilation (Rusen Ergun & Ayhan Bekleyen et al., 2024). These approaches not only reduce energy demand but also create cultural continuity (Sanagustin-France et al., 2025). As cities struggle to withstand the consequences of unsustainable growth, there is a renewed interest in vernacular architecture that is likely to be observed for contemporary design (Nguyen et al., 2019). In South Asia, courtyard houses are a great example of this tradition with geometry, materiality, and space organization being deployed to moderate internal temperatures of the house as well as facilitate communal living practices and, as studies from across a wide range of climates have demonstrated, such house designs may reduce cooling loads by between 20–30 per cent compared to conventional houses. The vernacular principles are not easy to introduce to modern urban housing (Sherwani et al., 2024). The integration of vernacular principles into modern urban housing experienced many setbacks. Space constraints, regulatory barriers, and changing lifestyles can limit the applicability of traditional forms (Azhani Abd Manaf et al., 2025). However, research indicates that even in compact plots, features like courtyards and wind catchers can deliver substantial energy savings and comfort improvements (Tabatabaei et al., 2024). Moreover, these elements resonate with cultural values and social practices, enhancing the acceptability and viability of sustainable design interventions.

2.1 Local Context

Pakistan, among the world’s most climate-vulnerable nations, faces acute pressures from urbanization and rising temperatures (Khan et al., 2020; UN-Habitat Pakistan, 2021). As a representative metropolis of South Asia, Rawalpindi has been witnessing an increasing temperature and aggravating urban heat islands, which further increase the energy requirements of the cooling process. The standardization of small residential parcels has triggered the almost complete eradication of the courtyards increasing the reliance on mechanical conditioning and hindering the process of transforming the city to sustainable urban development.

Fig. 1

Traditional Courtyard House in the Rural Punjab, Pakistan

Fig. 2

Courtyard House in KPK region, Pakistan

In this context, there is an urgent need to revisit the place of traditional architecture in contemporary urban housing. This research will contribute to the global discussion on sustainable urban development by examining the performance and acceptability of courtyard integration in 5-Marla houses. The results provide empirical evidence and practical insights for policymakers, designers, and communities interested in balancing modern aspirations with environmental responsibility.

3. Methods & Data

Given the pressing need for sustainable development in Pakistan, our study set out to investigate whether and how courtyards could be mainstreamed in contemporary urban housing.

3.1 Site and Setting

The selection of the 5 Marla plot as our research focus was deliberate. The 5 Marla dwelling is the most owned residential unit in Rawalpindi and much of northern Punjab, representing the modal form of urban homeownership. The 5 Marla dwelling is the most owned residential unit in Rawalpindi and much of northern Punjab, representing the modal form of urban homeownership.

3.2 Study Design

The investigation was conducted in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, and focused specifically on single-family homes situated on 5 Marla plots, a prevalent housing typology in the composite hot-humid/hot semi-arid climate of northern Punjab. This research utilized a convergent mixed methods approach, combining quantitative building simulations with comprehensive cross-sectional household surveys and building performance simulations.

3.2.1 Household Survey

A structured questionnaire captured demographic data, dwelling characteristics, prevalence of existing courtyard, thermal comfort perceptions, and reliance on mechanical conditioning (see Annex I for details).

The survey instrument was initially developed in English, then translated into Urdu and subsequently back-translated to ensure semantic accuracy. It was piloted in 10 households before the final version was deployed.

A stratified multi-stage sampling design was used: First, Rawalpindi was divided into administrative zones of City and Cantonment, and then each zone was further divided into low-, middle-, and high-income neighborhoods using median monthly income data. Within these strata, systematic random sampling was then used, and fixed intervals (e.g., age groups and income bands) were established from total dwelling counts to ensure representative coverage.

This study area falls under the regulatory authority of Rawalpindi, i.e., Rawalpindi Development Authority (RDA). These residential designs are in compliance with RDA byelaws. The conventional model of this research observes the 5 Marla byelaws, where 5 mandatory open spaces should be given at both front and rear sides of the plot.

Out of the 300 households originally targeted, 273 provided usable responses.

3.2.2 Building Performance Simulation

In this study, two residential building design models are developed to perform comprehensive simulations assessing energy consumption and thermal comfort by using vernacular materials in compact urban residential settings. The first model represents a conventional house layout typical of contemporary 5 Marla urban homes in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. This conventional design features a fully built-up footprint with rooms arranged around a central service core, constructed with 230mm thick fired brick walls and a flat roof, following prevailing building norms and construction standards.

The second model uses a courtyard house style within the same footprint with an 80-square-foot courtyard in the center. This courtyard house uses 300mm thick mudbrick internal walls with high thermal mass, and a 900mm high roof lantern, which also acts as a wind catcher to improve natural ventilation. The design is inspired by traditional South Asian vernacular architecture that is renowned for its climate-responsive passive cooling and heating strategies.

The simulation methodology includes creating detailed 3D models of both designs in Autodesk CAD and Revit 2023, followed by building-performance simulations to assess energy demand and thermal-comfort metrics. Local climate data of Rawalpindi was used, and material properties of construction elements were taken from authoritative databases of the National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan. Simulation outputs include heating and cooling energy consumption, Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices; these measures are crucial in assessing indoor environmental quality.

At the outset, thermal performance analysis will be performed, including energy consumption, and indoor comfort benefits of the courtyard house model relative to a conventional layout. This combined methodological approach enables a comprehensive assessment of both the user experience and the technical efficacy of climate-responsive courtyard design in a compact urban setting.

Model 1 (Conventional House)

Fully built-up 5 Marla footprints with rooms arranged around a central service core, 230mm fired brick walls, and flat roof configuration in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Proposed Plan with an internal Courtyard Fig. 4: Existing Plan of the House without Courtyard

Source: Authors

Model 2 (Courtyard House)

Identical footprint with 80 ft² central courtyard, 300mm mud brick interior walls, and 900mm high roof lantern functioning as a wind catcher in Fig. 4.

4. Analysis and Results

This section first analyzes the household survey data to understand public perceptions, preferences, and behaviors related to courtyard integration in 5 Marla urban homes. Survey insights provide critical context on spatial priorities and willingness to adopt vernacular design elements, which directly inform the design parameters and assumptions used for building performance simulations. As a result, the present paper presents results of the simulation that quantitatively assess the thermal performance, energy consumption, and indoor comfort advantages of the courtyard house model compared to a conventional layout.

4.1 Demographics and Housing Characteristics

Survey data were analyzed using SPSS version 29. The final sample comprised of 273 households with predominantly young respondents (51.5 percent aged between 18–30 years). Monthly income showed a bell-shaped distribution: 20.6 percent earning < PKR 35,000, 41.9 percent earning PKR 36–60,000, 17.6 percent earning PKR 61–100,000, and 19.9 percent earning > PKR 100,000. Educational attainment was relatively high, with 45.6 percent holding bachelor's or master's degrees. Household sizes are clustered around 5–6 occupants (58 percent), with a mean occupancy of 5.2 persons per dwelling. Plot sizes were predominantly 3–5 Marlas (39.3 percent) and 5–10 Marlas (38.3 percent), confirming the target demographic.

Survey results revealed strong support for courtyard integration (Table 1). A majority (59.6 percent) believed courtyards can reduce artificial heating and cooling needs, while 57.2% expressed willingness to sacrifice indoor area for a larger courtyard. Front yard locations were strongly preferred (63.4 percent) over central (28.7 percent) or back yard (7.9 percent) configurations.

Regarding purchasing decisions, lifestyle compatibility is the primary driver (53.3%), followed by architectural aesthetics (26.7%). Energy savings, while recognized, ranked lower as a decisive factor (2.6%). Nearly two-thirds (59.8%) expressed willingness to pay a premium for well-designed courtyards.

Table 1
Household Attitude towards Courtyard Integration in Rawalpindi
Variable	Response	%
Courtyards reduce artificial conditioning	Yes	59.6
	No	21.9
	Unsure	18.5
Willing to sacrifice the indoor area	Yes	57.2
	Maybe	31.2
	No	11.7
Preferred courtyard location	Front	63.4
	Central	28.7
	Back	7.9
Willing to pay premium for courtyard	Yes	59.8
	Maybe	31.4
	No	8.8
Source: Authors

4.2 Building Performance

4.2.1 Energy Performance

Two prototypical digital models were developed in Autodesk Revit and CAD 2023: Model 1 (Conventional House): Fully built up 5 Marla house with rooms arranged around a central service core, 230mm fired brick walls, and flat roof configuration. Model 2 (Courtyard House): Identical footprint with 80 ft² central courtyard, 300mm mud brick interior walls, and 900mm high roof lantern functioning as a wind catcher.

Simulation results demonstrated significant energy reductions in the courtyard design (Table 2). Total annual delivered energy decreased from 267,768 kBtu in Model 1 to 208,652 kBtu in Model 2, representing a 22.1% reduction. Cooling loads dropped by 21.3% (261,114 to 205,619 kBtu), while heating demand fell by 54.4% (6,654 to 3,033 kBtu). KBtu is a unit of energy in the building industry, especially for measuring heating, cooling, and energy consumption in buildings.

4.2.2 Solar Analysis

The 3D models were created using Revit CAD 2023, a software platform well-suited for detailed architectural modeling and simulation. The design chosen for the models reflects typical building patterns in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, conforming to local construction norms and building by-laws. This ensures that the simulation results are relevant and representative of prevailing residential construction practices in the region. Figures 5 and 6 show the solar analysis of both models i.e. Existing conventional and Proposed with courtyard design.

Model 1 Conventional

Fig. 5

Solar Analysis of an Existing 5 Marla House Model in Rawalpindi

Source: Authors

Model 2 with Courtyard

Figure 6: Solar Analysis of Proposed 5 Marla House with Courtyard

Source: Authors

Table 2
Comparison of energy load of Model 1 & Model 2
End Use	Model 1 Consumption (kBtu)	Model 2 Consumption (kBtu)	Reduction (%)
Heating	6,654	3,033	54.4
Cooling	261,114	205,619	21.3
Total	267,768	208,652	22.1

The comparative analysis of the two residential building models (Table 2), Model 1 (without a courtyard, conventional design) and Model 2 (with an 80 sq. ft courtyard as a proposed design), demonstrate that the introduction of a courtyard leads to substantial energy savings. Model 2 achieves a dramatic 54.4% reduction in heating energy consumption, decreasing from 6,654 kBtu in Model 1 to just 3,033 kBtu. Cooling energy usage also drops by 21.3%, from 261,114 kBtu to 205,619 kBtu. In comparison to the typical layout, the courtyard design greatly improves the building's thermal efficiency and lowers utility needs, as demonstrated by the overall 22.1% reduction in consumed energy.

4.2.3 Vernacular Elements Impact Analysis

This analysis was conducted using Autodesk Revit 2023, allowing detailed building performance simulations. The process involved creating a control model with both mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry as shown in Fig. 6, then isolating and removing each element in subsequent simulations to quantify their individual impact on energy loads and thermal comfort.

Fig. 6

Courtyard with Mud Cladding and Wind Catcher

Source: Authors

A control simulation isolating the effects of mud brick walls and wind catcher geometry (Fig. 06) revealed their critical contribution. Removing these vernacular elements while retaining the courtyard increased cooling loads by 10.9% and doubled heating demand. PMV shifted thermal mass effects, with the wind catcher contributing an additional 5–6% reduction in peak cooling loads from + 0.1 to + 0.4, while PPD increased from 5.2% to 11.7%. These results demonstrate that approximately half of the cooling savings and virtually all winter benefits derive from.

4.2.4 Thermal Comfort Analysis

Using the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) metrics to calculate comfort and incorporate environmental variables like the air's temperature, mean radiant temperature, velocity of air, and relative humidity, the courtyard design is improved with a quantitative thermal comfort evaluation of the internal space, and automatically computes PMV and PPD values following ASHRAE standards to assess occupant comfort. The tool is widely used for compliance with thermal comfort standards and for analyzing comfort in building design.

A statistical evaluation of indoor thermal comfort is demonstrated in the courtyard design utilizing the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) indices, calculated from several environmental and human factors. Many studies have employed PMV and PPD indices derived from building simulation models and courtyard environments for diverse research goals. Tabadkani et al. (2022) conducted a parametric study of courtyard design options for residential buildings, considering indoor thermal comfort and utility costs using PMV-PPD models, incorporating dynamic simulation inputs like this study. Table 3 indicates the air velocity, mean radiant temperature, and humidity values are sourced from building simulation performance models, reflecting dynamic interactions between envelope design, HVAC operation, and internal load conditions as simulated rather than measured directly.

Table 3
Calculation of PPD & PMV For Proposed Courtyard Model
Calculation of PMV and PPD
70	M (W/m2), Metabolic energy production (58 to 232 W/m2)
0	W (W/m2), Rate of mechanical work, (normally O)
24	Ta (C). Ambient air temperature (10–30)
22	Tr (C). Mean radiant temperature (often close to ambient air temperature)
0.6	V (m/s), Relative air velocity (0.1 to 1 m/s)
44	rh (%), Relative humidity
1	Id (CIO), basic clothing insulation (1 clo = 0.155 W/m2K)
Results for PMV and PPD
PMV	-0.04
PPD	5

Source: Authors

Fig. 7

Thermal Comfort Graph as per Table 03

Source: Authors

The graph (Fig. 7) illustrates how the indoor conditions, influenced by factors like air velocity, humidity, air temperature, clothing, and activity, affect occupants’ thermal comfort. It helps identify whether space is too warm or too cool for most people and guides design decisions to maintain comfort levels within acceptable standards, typically between − 0.5 and + 0.5 on the scale.

These results position the courtyard environment at the optimal center of the thermal comfort graph, as PMV values within ± 0.5 are internationally recognized benchmarks for design acceptability, with PPD values below 10% indicating that the vast majority of occupants will perceive no thermal discomfort. Such findings empirically validate the efficacy of the courtyard configuration in modulating microclimatic parameters to achieve nearly neutral indoor thermal sensation and minimal occupant dissatisfaction, thus supporting courtyard integration as a robust passive design strategy in residential architecture.

4.2.5 ASHRAE Compliance Assessment

By using benchmarking in this way, it is possible to measure the progress toward code compliance and demonstrate that sophisticated courtyard designs, simulation-based envelope optimizations, or passive cooling strategies effectively narrow down the compliance gap for housing fabrics.

A worldwide renowned standards organization, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) establishes guidelines for user comfort, safety, and efficiency of energy in the built environment, safety well as environmental stewardship.

In this assessment (Fig. 8), Model 2 registers an annual EUI (Energy Use Intensity) of 452 kWh/m²/yr, exceeding the ASHRAE code requirement of 341 kWh/m²/yr by 32.5%, thus falling short of compliance. However, compared to Model 1’s much higher EUI of 580 kWh/m²/yr, Model 2 achieves a 40% reduction in excess consumption relative to the earlier design, reflecting a substantial improvement in meeting regulatory energy targets.

Fig. 8

ASHRAE Compliance Assessment

Source: Authors

Overall, the results show the powerful benefits of bringing traditional, climate-responsive architecture into today’s urban homes. The simulation for a typical 5 Marla house in Rawalpindi shows that integrating a small courtyard can reduce yearly energy use by over 22%, cut cooling needs by about 21%, and slash heating demand by more than half compared to a conventional enclosed design. These impressive savings align with and in some cases exceed what other researchers have found for larger homes and different climates (IEA, 2023; Khan et al., 2020).

5. Discussion

This research affirms that traditional building techniques, when carefully adapted, can meet modern energy codes and delight occupants, even in cramped urban settings. A modest 80 square foot courtyard with thick walls could be a pivotal element, proving that downsizing doesn’t mean losing passive benefits. This opens doors for widespread retrofitting and new construction projects throughout the region with a similar climate, and homeowners are eager to blend traditional building practices with contemporary needs.

Passive cooling and heating techniques, such as enhanced air circulation, thermal mass regulation, and evaporative cooling, have been shown to significantly improve indoor thermal comfort and reduce reliance on mechanical systems in hot-arid climates (Shiva Manshour & Lehmann, et al., 2025). What is striking is that even when scaled down to fit tight urban plots, classic features like courtyards, thick mud brick walls, and wind catcher ventilation still work effectively. This dispels doubts about whether such vernacular methods can survive in crowded, modern cities (Khan et al., 2020). Moreover, our household survey data revealed that many residents are not only open to smaller indoor spaces if it means having a courtyard but are also willing to pay a premium for homes that incorporate these thoughtful, climate-sensitive design elements.

Efficacy comes from combining heavy thermal mass with natural ventilation, a timeless strategy rooted in local culture and climate. These passive solutions deliver reliable energy savings and comfort, reinforcing insights from studies in Iran, India, and the UAE, where urban heat islands are tackled with dense, shaded, and well-designed neighborhoods (IEA, 2023; UN-Habitat Pakistan, 2021).

Policy and Design Recommendations:

Based on these findings, here’s how cities and developers can make this happen:

Update Building Codes

Utilizing sustainable and locally sourced building materials (e.g., mud brick, lime, rammed earth) should be promoted as long as they meet proper safety standards.

Passive design measures, such as wind catchers, sun shading devices, and climate-responsive building orientations, should be required or encouraged through regulatory mechanisms.

Furthermore, traditional architectural elements of new developments, such as deep eaves and verandahs, should be promoted.

Projects that embody this design principles could be rewarded with fast-track approval processes, and developers who can demonstrate measurable energy savings could be rewarded with bonuses such as increased allowable building density.

To help architects balance the need for courtyards with privacy, security, and cultural context, user-friendly design toolkits should be created and shared.

Provide Financial Incentives:

Financial incentives - including grants, rebates or lower administrative fees - shall be offered for structures that use low-impact natural materials and passive cooling designs.

Tax credits or subsidies should be granted to homeowners and developers who use effective courtyard configurations that show documented energy savings.

Traditional sustainable construction methods should be taught to local builders and craftsmen to guarantee quality implementation and further spread of these methods.

The development of climate-smart residential housing should be rapidly expanded by accelerating the permitting process and providing incentives for planning.

Boost Public Awareness:

Public education initiatives need to be implemented to demonstrate the real benefits of courtyard use, such as improved air quality, lower utility bills, and healthier living conditions for families.

These efforts need to highlight the multi-functional role of courtyards as safe, multi-purpose outdoor areas for children's play, gardening, and social interaction, thus reflecting the current lifestyle needs of people.

The design of courtyard spaces, which should meet current expectations for comfort and maintenance, should be done so in ways that celebrate successful projects that integrate heritage and modern sustainability, and invite resident participation early in the design process.

Together, these measures have the potential to change the urban housing in Pakistan and other similar environments, combining cultural heritage with the latest sustainability standards to create healthier and more active societies. In order to respond to the twin urban demands of occupant comfort and energy-efficiency optimization, traditional elements of vernacular design, i.e., courtyard arrangements and materials sensitive to climate, are strategically incorporated. Empirical studies indicate that residents show a high level of acceptance and willingness to invest in well-designed courtyards, and that the well-designed courtyards are associated with a high level of satisfaction and quality of life. (Khan et al., 2020; Gaitani et al., 2007). Revising building codes and offering incentives for sustainable materials and passive architectural strategies can help speed up the widespread adoption of climate-responsive housing, with positive repercussions for urban sustainability and cultural continuity (Sharaf et al., 2020; Salman et al., 2018; Gunasekaran and Priya 2007; Gunasekaran and Priya, 2025).

6.Conclusion:

The findings of this study demonstrate that small courtyards significantly improve neighborhoods, not only by enhancing thermal comfort but also by decreasing energy demand. Courtyards act as natural climatic buffers and are important adaptation mechanisms of cities to the effects of climate change. Residential buildings with courtyards - especially when combined with mud-brick walls and chimney-style ventilation stacks - provide levels of comfort inside that are equal to or better than international standards, substantially reducing occupant discomfort. This is a significant improvement in traditional house designs. By focusing on maximizing open outdoor space, using thermal mass and vernacular forms of ventilation such as wind catchers, architects and planners can design homes that are energy efficient and desirable to residents, even in dense urban lots that were once considered too small to support such features. Above all, this research confirms the fact that the thoughtful integration of vernacular design with modern techniques enhances sustainability, lessens dependence on expensive mechanical cooling, and increases natural cooling of urban spaces. This study emphasizes the importance of vernacular components such as mud-brick walls and wind catchers and implies that further research on the optimization of these elements using modern materials, construction technologies, and integration with advanced mechanical systems may open up further potential energy-efficiency improvements. The synergies between courtyard design and new smart-building technologies offer an exciting new area to investigate. By overcoming these shortcomings, future research can further develop the practical implementation of climate-responsive courtyard design in modern urban housing and thus contribute to the attainment of sustainable development goals in a variety of socio-environmental settings.

Funding Declaration

The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Clinical trial number

not applicable.

Consent to participate:

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent to publish:

The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent for the publication of their anonymized data.

Ethics statement

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad, and conducted in accordance with its guidelines and the Declaration of Helsinki.

Annex I:

Questionnaire

This research investigates the design characteristics and microclimate dynamics of courtyards in rural and urban houses in Pakistan, aiming to propose climate-responsive design strategies, particularly focusing on building orientation. The study analyzes the traditional courtyard designs prevalent in rural areas and juxtaposes them with the evolving typologies found in urban contexts. Through a comprehensive review of literature, field surveys, and microclimate analysis, the thesis identifies the thermal comfort benefits and challenges associated with courtyard spaces in different settings. It examines the influence of building orientation on microclimate regulation and proposes strategies for optimizing thermal performance in response to the local climate conditions of Pakistan. The findings contribute to the discourse on sustainable architecture by offering insights into the adaptation of courtyard designs to mitigate climatic stresses and enhance occupants' comfort in both rural and urban environments.

Name: ___________

Age: _____________

Education: _______

Marital Status: ___

1. Do you currently reside in an urban or rural area?

a) Urban

b) Rural

2. How familiar are you with the concept of courtyards in residential architecture?

a) Very familiar

b) Somewhat familiar

c) Not familiar at all

3. In your opinion, what are the primary benefits of having a courtyard in a residential property?

a) Improved aesthetics

b) Enhanced natural ventilation

c) Increased natural light

d) Greater privacy

e) Other (please specify)

4. Would you prefer a house with a courtyard or without one?

a) With a courtyard

b) Without a courtyard

c) No preference

5. How do you think courtyards contribute to the microclimate of a house during winter?

a) They help retain heat and provide warmth

b) They facilitate natural ventilation, preventing stagnation of cold air

c) They have no significant impact on the winter microclimate

d) Unsure

6. Which type of courtyard design do you find most appealing in urban settings?

a) Traditional courtyard design

b) Modern/contemporary courtyard design

c) Mixed elements of traditional and modern designs

d) Not applicable (I don't prefer courtyards in urban settings)

7. In your opinion, how does the orientation of a house with a courtyard affect its microclimate during summer?

a) Proper orientation helps in shading and cooling the courtyard

b) Improper orientation leads to overheating and discomfort

c) Orientation has no significant impact on the summer microclimate

d) Unsure

8. Would you consider the microclimate dynamics of a courtyard when choosing a place to live?

a) Yes, it's an important factor

aa.

b) No, it's not a significant consideration

bb.

c) Unsure

9. How important is thermal comfort to you in selecting a residential property?

cc.

a) Very important

dd.

b) Somewhat important

ee.

c) Not important

10.

10. Have you ever experienced living in a house with a courtyard? If yes, please briefly describe your experience.

11.

11. Do you think traditional courtyard designs from rural areas are adaptable to urban housing contexts?

ff.

a) Yes, they can be adapted with modifications

gg.

b) No, urban contexts require different design approaches

hh.

c) Unsure

12.

12. Which of the following factors would influence your decision to choose a house with a courtyard?

ii.

a) Climate responsiveness

jj.

b) Architectural aesthetics

kk.

c) Personal preference

ll.

d) Energy efficiency

mm.

e) Other (please specify)

13.

13. Do you think courtyards can lessen the need for artificial heating and cooling in a house?

nn.

a) Yes

oo.

b) No

pp.

c) Unsure

14.

14. How often do you spend time outdoors in your residential property?

qq.

a) Daily

rr.

b) Several times a week

ss.

c) Occasionally

tt.

d) Rarely

15.

15. Would you be willing to invest more in a house with a well-designed courtyard that enhances its microclimate?

uu.

a) Yes

vv.

b) No

ww.

c) It depends on other factors

16.

16. How do you think courtyards affect the overall ambiance and atmosphere of a house?

xx.

a) They create a sense of openness and connectivity with nature

yy.

b) They can make the space feel enclosed and claustrophobic

zz.

c) They have no significant impact on ambiance

aaa.

d) Unsure

17.

17. In your opinion, which type of courtyard design is better suited to hot and arid climates?

bbb.

a) Open, spacious courtyards with minimal vegetation

ccc.

b) Shaded courtyards with abundant vegetation

ddd.

c) Courtyards with water features for evaporative cooling

eee.

d) Other (please specify)

18.

18. How do you perceive the role of courtyards in fostering social interaction among residents?

fff.

a) They encourage social gatherings and interactions

ggg.

b) They have no significant impact on social interaction

hhh.

c) They may hinder privacy and individual space

iii.

d) Unsure

19.

19. Would you prefer a courtyard that allows for easy access to the surrounding landscape or one that is more enclosed and private?

jjj.

a) Easy access to the surrounding landscape

kkk.

b) More enclosed and private

lll.

c) No preference

20.

20. Do you think courtyards contribute to the overall sustainability of residential properties?

mmm.

a) Yes, they enhance natural ventilation and reduce energy consumption

nnn.

b) No, their impact on sustainability is negligible

ooo.

c) Unsure

21.

21. How do you think courtyards can affect the resale value of a residential property?

ppp.

a) They can increase the resale value by enhancing the property's appeal

qqq.

b) They have no significant impact on the resale value

rrr.

c) Unsure

22.

22. Which aspect of courtyard design do you prioritize the most when considering its impact on the microclimate?

sss.

a) Orientation

ttt.

b) Vegetation and landscaping

uuu.

c) Size and layout

vvv.

d) Shading elements

www.

e) Other (please specify)

23.

23. Would you be willing to sacrifice indoor space for a larger courtyard area?

xxx.

a) Yes

yyy.

b) No

24.

24. How do you think courtyards contribute to the mental well-being of occupants?

zzz.

a) They provide a connection to nature, promoting relaxation and stress relief

aaaa.

b) They have no significant impact on mental well-being

bbbb.

c) Unsure

25.

25. Would you prefer a larger courtyard with less built-up area or a smaller courtyard with more built-up area in your house?

cccc.

a) Larger courtyard

dddd.

b) Smaller courtyard

26.

26. How do you think courtyards contribute to the mental well-being of occupants?

eeee.

a) They provide a connection to nature, promoting relaxation and stress relief

ffff.

b) They have no significant impact on mental well-being

gggg.

c) Unsure

27.

27. How satisfied are you with the thermal comfort provided by your courtyard during extreme weather conditions?

hhhh.

a) Very satisfied

iiii.

b) Somewhat satisfied

jjjj.

c) Not satisfied

28.

28. In your opinion, what role should architect and urban planners play in promoting the integration of courtyards in residential design to enhance microclimate and comfort?

kkkk.

a) They should prioritize incorporating courtyard designs in their projects

llll.

b) They should educate clients about the benefits of courtyards and encourage their inclusion in designs

mmmm.

c) They should focus on other design elements rather than courtyards

nnnn.

d) Unsure

Author Contribution

Erum Zareen: Conceptualization, Data collection, Analysis, and Writing of Original DraftShahbaz Altaf: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, and Review & Editing of the Draft

References

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Yes