Exploring preschool teachers' perceptions of the value and implementation barriers of outdoor play: A case study

ZhiyingY.Liu2✉Emailwyslzy@wuyiu.edu.cn

XinxinYuan2

DongfengNing3

LinaYou4

1School of Humanities & Teacher EducationWuyi UniversityWuyishanChina

2Department of EducationNingde Vocational and Technical CollegeFuanChina

3Experimental Kindergarten of WuyishanWuyishanChina

4Second Kindergarten of ShaowuShaowuChina

Zhiying Liu^z,2,*, Xinxin Yuan², Dongfeng Ning³ and Lina You⁴

¹School of Humanities & Teacher Education, Wuyi University, Wuyishan, China

²Department of Education, Ningde Vocational and Technical College, Fuan, China

³Experimental Kindergarten of Wuyishan, Wuyishan, China

⁴Second Kindergarten of Shaowu, Shaowu, China

^z,2orresponding author.

E-mail addresses: wyslzy@wuyiu.edu.cn (Z.Y. Liu)

Abstract

This study aims to explore Chinese preschool teachers’ perceptions of the value of outdoor play and the barriers they encounter in its implementation. A qualitative case study approach was adopted to collect structured data from a kindergarten in southeastern China through interviews, observations, and document analysis. Research findings indicate that preschool teachers perceive outdoor play as beneficial for children’s holistic development, their connection with nature, and the cultivation of children’s resilience. However, teachers also report encountering several barriers to implementation, including safety concerns, limited resources and materials, gaps in teachers’ professional competence, and insufficient parental understanding and support. The findings enhance the understanding of the complex factors influencing the outdoor play implementation in preschool education. By examining teachers’ perceptions and the practical barriers they encounter, this study contributes to bridging the gap between theoretical advocacy for outdoor play and its practical application.

Keywords:

Outdoor play

preschool teachers’ perceptions

value

barriers

case study

Introduction

Outdoor play is globally recognized as a critical component of early childhood education, fostering children’s physical health, cognitive development, social competence, and emotional well-being. Piaget’s (1964) constructivist theory suggests that children acquire knowledge through playful exploration and hands-on experiences. Additionally, Vygotsky (1998) emphasized that outdoor play introduces more complex situations, encouraging higher-level thinking, investigation, and meaningful learning experiences.

China has a long-standing cultural tradition of outdoor play for children dating back to the Tang and Song dynasties. During these periods, classic paintings depicting children’s play vividly showed their active social interactions and physical activities in natural outdoor settings (Hu et al., 2014). In terms of policy, the Early Learning and Development Guidelines for Children Aged 3 to 6 Years issued by the Ministry of Education of China in 2012, emphasized that kindergartens should provide more opportunities for free social interaction and play (MOE, China, 2012). The Guidelines for Assessing the Quality of Kindergarten Care and Education (MOE, China, 2022) also stressed that kindergartens should adhere to play-based activities and value the unique educational significance of play and life.

However, despite the policy emphasis and cultural background, there is limited understanding of preschool teachers’ perceptions of the value of outdoor play and the barriers they encounter during its implementation. Against the backdrop of urbanization and the development of information technology, children are increasingly becoming alienated from nature. The phenomenon of “nature deficit disorder” has raised social concerns due to its negative impacts on children’s development (Xiong, 2023). For children who spend the majority of their time in preschool institutions, outdoor play at kindergarten becomes especially important. The Guidelines for Assessing the Quality of Kindergarten Care and Education (MOE, China, 2022) require that the daily outdoor activity time for children in full-day programs should generally be no less than two hours. Preschool teachers’ professional knowledge, educational philosophies, and attitudes toward outdoor play directly affect the quality of play design and implementation, as well as the extent to which outdoor play promotes children’s development (McClintic & Petty, 2015). Therefore, exploring teachers’ perceptions of the value of outdoor play and the barriers they encounter in implementing it is of significant importance for improving outdoor play practices and promoting children’s development. This study aims to address this gap by conducting a qualitative exploration of preschool teachers’ perceptions of the value and implementation barriers of outdoor play within the Chinese context.

Literature review

The Value of Outdoor Play

Extending the classroom to the outdoors provides rich learning opportunities for children. White (2016) notes that outdoor play exposes children to nature, sparks curiosity, nurtures exploration, builds experience, boosts neurodevelopment, supports emotional well-being, fosters social skills, cultivates risk management, and enables emotional and ideational expression. Teachers recognize that outdoor play contribute significantly to children's physical, social-emotional, language, and cognitive development (Doğan & Boz, 2019). Studies focusing on outdoor activities for children aged three to four have identified their preferred forms of play, including cycling, playing in the sandpit, swinging, sliding, climbing, and unstructured outdoor play (Holmes & Procaccino, 2009). Previous study has shown that more time spent outdoors is associated with higher levels of physical activity, less sedentary behavior, and improved cardiovascular function (Gray et al., 2015). Furthermore, these outdoor activities positively influence children’s cognitive and language development (Lundy & Trawick-Smith, 2021), facilitating their self-expression and the formation of positive social relationships.

Outdoor play enhances children's ability to interact with the world and cultivate the necessary skills for them to understand the complexity of the world they live in. Outdoor play also has a positive impact on children's readiness for school (Becker et al., 2018). According to Lundy and Trawick-Smith (2021), preschool children's learning abilities can be strengthened through participation in outdoor play. In open environments, children have the opportunity to collaborate in play and participate in a variety of physical activities, such as jumping, running, climbing, swinging, and exploratory discovery. Learning through play empowers children to self-direct their exploration, as it fosters a profound sense of discovery (Fung & Chung, 2024). However, although teachers recognize the importance of outdoor play for children's development, their limited understanding of it and the motivation to promote it are not obvious (McClintic & Petty, 2015). There is a lack of in-depth understanding of the specific ways in which teachers perceive the value of outdoor play. Outdoor play show that open-ended materials highly engage children (Dietze & Kashin, 2019), promote active participation and physical activity (Yalcin & Erden, 2021), and support physical literacy development. Research also highlights the need to increase children's outdoor participation opportunities and enhance teachers' professional abilities in organizing quality outdoor play (Hu et al., 2015).

Barriers to Outdoor Play Implementation

Although the significance of outdoor play in children's development is widely acknowledged, preschool teachers still encounter certain barriers in implementing outdoor play. Studies have identified multiple barriers to implement outdoor play, such as limited outdoor space, safety concerns, time constraints, and curriculum pressures (Dyment & Bell, 2008). Furthermore, a study has shown that adverse weather conditions, and parental attitudes toward outdoor play, safety concerns, lack of activity materials, and insufficient time all limit children's opportunities for outdoor play (Doğan & Boz, 2019). Due to insufficient outdoor space, high child-to-teacher ratios, and the prevailing cultural emphasis on academic learning in Chinese kindergartens contribute to preschool teachers' preference for academically oriented activities over outdoor play (Hu et al., 2015). Moreover, teachers also report that parents restrict children's outdoor activities due to concerns about safety and health, believing that children should remain within a confined area (Erdem, 2018). Family concerns extend beyond adverse weather conditions to encompass children's health and safety. While children's motivation and readiness for outdoor play can positively influence teachers' classroom management, educators often encounter challenges in managing children's behaviour during such activities (Ozturk & Ozer, 2022). These challenges may lead to teachers' reluctance to organize or engage in outdoor play. Additionally, some educators have reported that the curriculum itself poses a barrier, as it lacks sufficient objectives or incentives to promote outdoor play (Doğan & Boz, 2019).

In the context of China, where the emphasis on academic preparation has been steadily increasing, an additional barrier to children's outdoor play opportunities has emerged. Chinese parents have traditionally placed a high value on education, and many have become obsessed with earlier academic achievements. Compared to previous decades, contemporary Chinese parents appear increasingly inclined to accelerate their children's academic trajectories, driven by the widely recognized concern of “losing at the starting line”输在起跑线上 (Hu et al., 2014).

Within China's increasingly competitive educational landscape, preschool education faces mounting pressures. A study has shown that when engaging in outdoor play, the pressure and demands from parents cause preschool education to allocate more time to indoor learning, and often replace outdoor play (considered more dangerous), or substituted it with teacher-led organized play (Leng, 2000). Compared with organized outdoor play, due to cultural reasons (i.e., cultural preference for collective activities) and environmental constraints (i.e., lack of safe outdoor play environments), Chinese children spend much less time on high-quality unstructured outdoor play (Hu et al., 2014). While many teachers acknowledge the educational value of play, their instructional practices often continue to prioritize the acquisition of specific skills and content knowledge over child-initiated exploration (Gupta et al., 2019).

Teachers face challenges stemming from a cultural tradition that prioritizes formal academic learning for children and the perceived dichotomy between play and learning (Mulia, 2016). In a comparative study, Nyland and Ng (2016) found that early childhood educators in Singapore express concerns that play-based approaches cannot substitute for academic rigor within more traditional pedagogical frameworks, as this conflicts with parental expectations that schools should primarily serve as spaces for learning rather than play. However, most of these studies have been conducted within Western contexts, and it is necessary to explore the barriers faced by preschool teachers in different cultural and educational backgrounds.

Theoretical Framework

This study draws on two foundational theoretical frameworks, namely the sociocultural theory(Vygotsky, 1978) and the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The sociocultural theory emphasizing social interaction and cultural context as pivotal to children’s learning and development, preschool teachers are conceptualized as critical facilitators of supportive environments for outdoor play-based learning. Their perceptions of outdoor play’s value and associated implementation strategies directly mediate the quality of children’s play experiences and holistic development. The theory further underscores the need for targeted professional development and institutional support to enhance teachers’ capacity to recognize outdoor play’s pedagogical potential and design developmentally appropriate play settings.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory offers a multi-level framework to examine the dynamic interplay of environmental factors shaping teachers’ attitudes and practices toward outdoor play. These nested systems include the microsystem (e.g., playground design, available play materials), mesosystem (e.g., teacher-parent collaborative partnerships), exosystem (e.g., local educational policies governing outdoor play), and macrosystem (e.g., cultural norms surrounding outdoor play’s educational merit). For example, microsystem factors such as playground resources influence teachers’ ability to scaffold play, while macrosystem cultural values shape their fundamental perceptions of its worth. By analysing interconnections across these ecological levels, this study seeks to comprehensively identify the barriers encountered by preschool teachers in outdoor play implementation.

Methodology

This study adopts the qualitative case study. Merriam (1998) described the basic qualitative research commonly used in education as “the researcher is interested in understanding the meaning of a phenomenon to the relevant individuals” (p.22). Given that the purpose of this study is to explore preschool teachers’ perceptions of the value of outdoor play and the barriers they encounter during its implementation, the qualitative research is particularly appropriate. Case study aims to optimize the understanding of the case rather than generalize beyond it (Robert, 2024). The case of this study is a kindergarten located in the Experimental Zone for Improving the Quality of Childcare and Education in Kindergartens of the Ministry of Education of China. The kindergarten advocates outdoor natural play as a core educational philosophy, takes play as the basic activity mode. Teachers implement child-directed play practices grounded in the principle of respecting children's agency. They believe that children as active learners who are capable of self-initiated learning and development within a supportive environment. Furthermore, this kindergarten is the practical teaching base of the university where the researcher works. It is located in the northernmost county of Fujian Province and serves children aged 3 to 6 for learning and care.

According to the Kindergarten Work Regulations and Procedures (MOE, 2016), the kindergarten has three grade levels. Children in the junior class are 3 to 4 years old; children in the middle class are 4 to 5 years old, and children in the senior class are 5 to 6 years old. The kindergarten has a total of 18 classes, with 6 classes in each grade. There are 75 educators in the kindergarten, among whom 60 are full-time teachers. The teachers participating in this study were randomly selected from the full-time teachers of the kindergarten.

Participants

The participants of this case study were selected through voluntary recruitment and randomly chosen from the 18 classes in the kindergarten. A total of eleven preschool teachers participated in the study, including three who served children aged 5 to 6, three served children aged 4 to 5, and two served children aged 3 to 4. To ensure the integrity of the research and protect the privacy of the participants, all teachers' names were replaced with numbers, such as Teacher 1, Teacher 2, etc. Detailed demographic information is presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Demographic characteristics of teachers
Teacher	Experience(years)	Qualification	Major	The age range of children served
Teacher 1	6	College diploma	preschool education	4–5岁
Teacher 2	4	Bachelor	preschool education	3–4岁
Teacher 3	8	College diploma	preschool education	4–5岁
Teacher 4	4	College diploma	preschool education	5–6岁
Teacher 5	2	Bachelor	preschool education	5–6岁
Teacher 6	10	College diploma	preschool education	5–6岁
Teacher 7	10	College diploma	preschool education	5–6岁
Teacher 8	5	Bachelor	preschool education	4–5岁
Teacher 9	11	College diploma	preschool education	4–5岁
Teacher 10	13	College diploma	preschool education	3–4岁
Teacher 11	5	College diploma	preschool education	3–4岁

Data Collection

Data collection was conducted during the spring semester of 2025. Prior to the formal data collection, a meeting was held with the kindergarten principal and all participating teachers.

During this meeting, the first author asked the participants to sign the informed consent form. Although the sample of this study was not children, it was inevitable to observe the interaction between children and teachers during the observation of games.

To ensure ethical standards, the first author entrusted the teachers to have the parents sign the informed consent form. The observation and interview were not in a specific order. The time of the interview was based on the principle of not disturbing the normal work of the preschool teachers. The observation was scheduled on Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday mornings or afternoons each week. Because this time was the spare time when the researcher did not need to participate in the teaching work at the university.

The data for this qualitative case study were collected through interviews, observations, and document analysis. All data were initially recorded in Chinese and subsequently translated into English using back-to-back translation method to ensure linguistic accuracy and conceptual equivalence. This study employed face-to-face individual interviews with the purpose of understanding preschool teachers' perceptions of the value of outdoor play and the barriers they encounter in implementing it. The interview questions were developed by the researcher based on the research questions and literature. After completion, three experts in the field of preschool education were invited to review the interview questions. Among the three experts, one was a university professor and the other two were preschool teachers with extensive experience in outdoor play. The three experts revised the interview questions, and the final interview protocol consisted of nine questions. Each interview lasted approximately 30 minutes.

In this study, non-participatory observation was employed. To facilitate data analysis, during the observation process, the researchers used mini sports cameras to record outdoor play sessions. During the observations, the researchers chose positions that did not disturb the children's play and did not affect the data collection of this study. The duration of each observation session varied depending on the schedule and nature of the outdoor play. Regarding the total duration of data collection, each observation had its own rhythm and process, so there was no ideal observation duration (Merriam & Tisaell, 2016). Ultimately, the total observation time amounted to 750 minutes, equivalent to 50 sessions each lasting 15 minutes.

In this study, the document analysis includes the safety management system for outdoor play, research materials on outdoor play, teaching and research records of kindergartens, excellent cases of outdoor play, and training records of teachers. All documents were internal to the participating kindergartens. With the approval of the kindergarten administration, the researcher selectively excerpted content directly relevant to the study, without photographing or photocopying the original documents. All the data in this study are confidential. Only the researcher of this study can read and access the data, which are stored in a personal laptop with a password.

Data analysis

This study employed content analysis for data analysis. In order to facilitate the analysis of the data, the collected data is first transcribed into written form. The authors of this study constructed and generated a coding framework in a data-driven manner through repeated reading of the data, based on the research questions. The coding framework met the requirements of unidimensional, mutual exclusivity and exhaustiveness (Schreier, 2013). Each identified meaning unit was assigned a code, which was understood in the context. During the coding process, the codes were constantly edited and modified until categories or themes emerged.

During the coding process, the researcher used memos to track and record the process of data changes to ensure the rationality of the coding. To further ensure coding consistency, the researcher performed the analysis at two separate time points. Additionally, an independent researcher was involved in evaluating the data coding to validate the integrity and coherence of the established coding framework. After the coding was completed, the coding of two researchers was compared. Reliability analysis revealed a high level of intercoder agreement (McHugh, 2012), with the Cohen's kappa was 0.80.

Findings

Preschool teachers’ perceptions of outdoor play value

Data analysis reveals that preschool teachers’ perceptions of the value of outdoor play are multifaceted. These aspects were coded into different categories and listed in Table 1. The total number of categories derived from the coding of data analysis is 60. Then, these categories were clustered into two themes.

Table 1
Preschool teacher’ perception of outdoor play value
Theme	Category	Example	Frequency
Holistic development	Cognitive and scientific inquiry	On rainy days, children engage in outdoor play by interacting with puddles, observing phenomena such as the height of water splashes and whether their shoes become wet. During this process, they often ask questions such as, "why is the water cold?"	27
	Social and emotional development	The children create traffic rules in the outdoor cycling area. Those playing as traffic police monitor their peers to ensure rule compliance. For example, cyclists must not ride against traffic or make random turns. The children believe such actions could lead to accidents.	76
	Physical and motor skills	Children develop core strength, leg power, and lower body control while riding balance bikes and tricycles. They actively use leg muscles to climb uphill and control speed downhill using foot brakes. These actions improve muscle endurance and lower limb strength.	61
Nature connection and children’s resilience	Natural connection	The game area is set in a pine forest, where children use natural materials such as pinecones and twigs for play, deepening their sensory and experiential understanding of nature.	39
Nature connection and children’s resilience	Children’s resilience	Children can use skis to smoothly slide down the slope on bamboo ladders. They are capable of anticipating risks and are prepared for the adventure.	23

Holistic development

The first theme emerging from teachers' perception of the value of outdoor play is the promotion of children’s holistic development. This is reflected in children’s cognitive and scientific exploration, social and emotional development, and physical and motor skills. First, preschool teachers believe that outdoor play holds significant value for children's cognitive and scientific exploration. In the interviews, 11 participants indicated that during outdoor play, children can freely explore natural materials. For instance, Teacher 1 mentioned in the interview that children raised questions by observing leaves with holes and then looked up information together to find the answers. The teacher guided the children to explore the natural features of the leaves. These activities promoted the children's learning and understanding of nature (6.13.2025_Interview).

Teacher 2 also pointed out that that preschoolers demonstrate independent problem identification, critical thinking, and problem-solving during outdoor play, which is consistent with observational data highlighting the value outdoor play for cognitive and exploratory development. For example, 5 to 6-year-old applied scientific inquiry (observation, hypothesis testing, experimentation, and conclusion drawing) when constructing water channels in sand-water areas, fostering logical thinking, creativity, and scientific spirit (18.3.2025_Observation), as shown in Fig. 1. During outdoor play, children engage hands-on with natural materials and acquire foundational STEM concepts.

Additionally, 3 to 4-year-old children demonstrate social problem-solving skills in role-play areas by requesting water through verbal interaction, illustrating how social engagement supports play-based problem-solving (19.3.2025_Obervation).

Early childhood educators recognized the significance of outdoor play for social-emotional development, including the promotion of cooperation, rule adherence, peer collaboration, social skills, and emotional regulation. Observations showed that children typically displayed positive emotions and demonstrated the ability to regulate their affect during challenging situations. For instance, 5 to 6-year-old children remained calm and resolved to rebuild after their constructions collapsed, while 3 to 4-year-old children during sledging on kindergarten slopes triggered emotional contagion, attracting peers’ participation (19.3.2025_Observation). Children also showed high levels of engagement, often expressing reluctance to end outdoor play sessions.

Fig. 1

Sand and water area

All participants emphasized outdoor play’s unparalleled benefits for physical and motor development compared to indoor or structured activities. Teacher 4 noted during the interview that outdoor play effectively supports improvements in children’s gross motor movements, flexibility, endurance, upper and lower limb strength, as well as explosive power (18.6.2025_Interview). Observations confirmed this, children aged 4 to 5 years demonstrate body control, balance, and endurance during cycling (13.3.2025_Observation). In addition, 3 to 4-year-old developed coordination through chasing yoga balls, climbing bamboo ladders, and collecting pinecones (7.3.2025_Observation).

Nature connection and children’s resilience

Preschool teachers also recognize that outdoor play holds significant value in fostering children’s connection with nature and developing their resilience. The kindergarten in this study features a rich natural environment and operates under the philosophy of “nature-based education.” Consequently, all participants emphasized the importance of a connection with nature as a key dimension of outdoor play’s value. For example, Teacher 6 stated that the outdoor space is expansive and filled with natural greenery, making it highly suitable for nature-integrated play activities. Engaging children in exploratory play within natural settings, such as observing the development of tadpoles in streams, tracking the growth of various fruits, and experiencing the joy of harvesting, and enriches their connection with the natural world (23.6.2025_Interview). In the outdoor sand and water area, children deepen their sensory understanding of natural elements through direct interaction with materials like sand and water. This hands-on engagement not only supports their exploration of natural resources but also enhances their environmental awareness and ability to effectively utilize natural materials (10.4.2025_Observation).

Outdoor play significantly contributes to the development of children resilience, which serves as a critical foundation for their holistic development. During the interview, Teacher 4 observed that children exhibited perseverance, determination, and courage during outdoor play. By confronting challenges and continuously pushing their limits, children cultivate essential qualities such as persistence and the ability to recover from setbacks (18.6.2025_Interview). An analysis of preschool teachers’ reflections on play-based practices further revealed that educators frequently highlight the role of outdoor play in fostering children’s connection with nature. This indicates that outdoor play in fostering children with meaningful and direct engagement with natural environments and materials. Similarly, in outdoor activities such as cycling or climbing, children have opportunities to strengthen their resilience, as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Zip line

The barriers face by preschool teachers when implementing outdoor play

Although teachers acknowledge the educational and developmental benefits of outdoor play, they report encountering numerous barriers in its practical implementation. Data analysis revealed four themes characterizing the barriers faced by preschool educators in implementing outdoor play (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3

The percentage of barriers

Safety concerns

Safety concerns represent the foremost issue prioritized by all early childhood educators in their professional practice. Data analysis revealed that every participant identified safety concerns as the primary barrier to implementing outdoor play during interviews. They emphasized that even with strong professional competence and effective organization of outdoor play, a single safety incident can act as a critical deterrent, potentially leading to disciplinary actions or reputational damage, which could significantly disrupt their work. For example, when asked about barriers in implementing outdoor play, Teacher 11 immediately cited safety concerns (20.6.2025_Interview).

The kindergarten participating in this study is endowed with naturally rich outdoor environments. Observational data also revealed the presence of safety concerns during the implementation of outdoor play. For instance, in the junior class role-playing area, the teacher’s attention was heavily focused on a child with special needs, resulting in limited real-time supervision of potential conflicts in other areas, such as competition for plastic vegetables or accidental knocking over of tea sets, thereby creating a safety blind spot (25.3.2025.3_Observation). Furthermore, during forest cycling activities involving 4-to 5-years-old, children tend to gather at high speeds on a 50-degree downhill slope and at turning points, increasing the likelihood of rear-end collisions. Particularly when descending, children’s speed increases while their reaction distance decreases. If a child in front suddenly slows down or falls, the child behind often lacks sufficient time to respond (3.4.2025_Observation). During whole-staff teaching and research meetings, safety concerns were identified as the most frequently cited factor among teachers’ anxieties regarding the implementation of outdoor play.

Limited resource and materials

The second major barriers preschool teachers face in implementing outdoor play involves limitations in materials and resources. These constraints include the lack of diversity in available materials, the impact of weather conditions, and insufficient allocated playtime.

During the interviews, several participants highlighted that limited resources pose a significant obstacle to conducting effective outdoor play. For example, Teacher 8 noted that a shortage and lack of variety in play materials hinder the ability to meet diverse play needs (25.6.2025_Interview). Furthermore, Teacher 9 identified that outdoor play is hindered by extreme weather conditions such as heavy rain, cold temperatures, or the rainy season, which render outdoor spaces inaccessible. This limitation reduces the diversity of outdoor play opportunities and necessitates the adoption of alternative indoor play arrangements. (24.6.2025_Interview). The area where the kindergarten is located experiences the rainy season every May and June. Therefore, during the data collection process, the researchers did not observe or record any outdoor play in these two months.

Observational data revealed that the depth of children's play is significantly influenced by either the scarcity of game materials or the limited development and utilization of available resources. For example, during play in the sand and water area, 4- to 5—year-olds were observed searching for ropes around the play space to locate necessary materials due to insufficient on-site provisions. These interruptions result in pauses in play, preventing the activity from proceeding smoothly. This highlights a gap in the planning and preparation of materials, which ultimately undermines the continuity and quality of the play experience. Similarly, in cycling activities for 4- to 5-year-olds, the play setting relies solely on basic protective gear such as helmets, elbow pads, and knee pads, lacking expandable or context-enriching materials. For instance, there are no road signs set up to guide children in recognizing complex routes. The absence of materials that could enhance the cycling context, such as simulated traffic signs and adjustable slope brackets, makes the cycling experience monotonous and limits opportunities for in-depth exploration.

Furthermore, during the construction games of 5- to 6-year-olds, although wooden construction materials and red brick tiles were provided, the variety of materials was relatively limited. This restricted constrained the children's creativity and reduced the diversity of their play. They might not be able to explore more construction possibilities or develop complex play narratives. Outdoor play time was found to be insufficient across all observed cases. Children often spent much of the allocated time arranging materials before play could begin. When play was about to reach a deeper stage, it had to be interrupted, preventing meaningful engagement. The limited time negatively impacted the quality of play and hindered children’s developmental opportunities throughout the process.

Teacher professional capacity gaps

The barriers for preschool teachers to implementing outdoor play stem not only from external objective factors, but also from their own capacity to organize and facilitate such activities, which constitutes a critical yet often overlooked component. In outdoor play, children's development is achieved not only through interactions with the external environment, materials and peers, but also through high-quality interaction and support provided by teachers. During the interviews, preschool teachers openly acknowledged that one of the barriers to conducting outdoor play is the teachers’ own level of professional competence. Many participants stated they lack knowledge required to observe and understand children's actions during outdoor play, making it difficult to provide effective support. Teacher 9 also pointed out that insufficient professional competence, such as limited knowledge of natural science and play facilitation skills, hinders the quality of outdoor play. Continuous professional development is necessary for teachers to better support children's outdoor play (24.6.2025_Interview).

Although all teachers stated in the interviews that they assume the roles of observer, guide, supporter and participant during outdoor play, observational data revealed that they primarily used smartphone to capture pictures or videos of specific moments during children's play for later discussion. However, the roles of guide, supporter and participant that they described were not directly observable in practice. Observations revealed that teacher-child interactions during outdoor play were infrequent and predominantly confined to procedural or safety-related directives, such as reminding children to remove outerwear or follow safety protocols. Notably, preschool educators showed limited ability to identify children's individual interests in order to meaningfully extend play experiences. Furthermore, there was a lack of differentiated instructional support that addresses the diverse developmental needs of the children.

In outdoor play areas, teachers generally did not actively participate in or guide children's activities, merely reminding them to be cautious about safety. In the role-playing and construction areas, teachers focused on recording play sessions or failed to provide timely support when issues arose, thereby limiting children’s opportunities for deeper learning. Observations also revealed that teachers lacked the capacity to effectively guide outdoor play, as acknowledged during open days when they recognized the urgent need for professional development. Key areas for improvement include advancing play scenarios, asking meaningful questions during play, and effectively utilizing natural materials.

Parental understanding and support

The final barrier preschool teachers encounter in implementing outdoor play stems from parents’ insufficient understanding and support for this pedagogical approach. In this study, nine out of eleven participants indicated that the barrier they faced during the implementation of outdoor play was parents' lack of understanding and support. For instance, during the implementation of outdoor play, certain play materials need to be provided by parents, but in many cases, these materials were either not supplied or failed to meet the required specifications. Preschool teachers also noted that during outdoor play, children’s clothes inevitably become soiled. Parents hold high expectations regarding the cleanliness of their children’s clothing, insisting that garments must be spotless, which discourages children from engaging with natural materials such as mud. Similarly, during the observation process, it was found that some children’s clothing was unsuitable for outdoor play, being either too thick or too tight, thereby restricting their freedom of movement and hindering active participation.

Discussion

Reimagining the value of outdoor play: bridging developmental ecology and post-pandemic resilience

This study finds outdoor play facilitates children’s psychological recovery following the COVID-19 pandemic, a conclusion corroborated by Alavi et al. (2023) and Savahl et al. (2023), who demonstrated that exposure to natural elements (e.g., soil, pine needles, uneven terrain) mitigates anxiety and emotional dysregulation. Teachers consistently framed physical challenges as a means of fostering psychological resilience, aligning with the “risk empowerment” framework in outdoor play literature (Sandseter, 2009). However, unlike Western contexts where risk is valued for its intrinsic developmental benefits, participants in this study conceptualized risk primarily as a pedagogical tool to cultivate Confucian ideals of perseverance. This cultural nuance suggests that the socio-emotional benefits of risky play are moderated by local value systems, an aspect not accounted for in Sandseter’s original model.

The study further confirms outdoor play as a catalyst for children’s holistic development, supporting the theory of embodied cognition (Cakan & Acer, 2024), which posits that learning emerges through dynamic sensorimotor engagement with the environment. The open and variable nature of outdoor settings facilitates unstructured movement and direct contact with natural stimuli (Bento & Dias, 2017), while observations in pine forest environments highlight unstructured nature exposure as a driver of ecological awareness (Chawla, 2020). Moreover, outdoor environments offer more robust sensory stimuli for the development of spatial perception compared to indoor settings (Erdem, 2018).

Moreover, children’s collaborative fort-building, characterized by negotiation and problem-solving, supports Vygotsky’s (1978) assertion that advanced psychological functions are co-constructed through socially and materially mediated activities. These findings position outdoor play not merely as a restorative intervention, but as a nexus where embodied cognition, sociocultural mediation, and ecosystem resilience converge. For early childhood education curricula, this suggests the importance of prioritizing daily access to enriched natural environments over isolated mental health modules, as the former simultaneously nurtures scientific curiosity, social problem-solving abilities, and emotional equilibrium.

Breaking down barriers: policy implementation and the perspective of equity

Despite preschool teachers’ positive attitudes toward outdoor play, safety concerns drive a preference for indoor ball and rope activities (Erdem, 2018), a trend reflecting global increases in risk aversion (Brussoni et al., 2022), and aligning with research on tensions between risk avoidance and children’s need for challenging play environments (Jerebine et al., 2024). The findings of this study indicate that teachers' fear of accidents and liability risks leads to restrictive practices, such as limiting climbing activities to low structures. This is consistent with Sandseter and Seland (2018) assertion that teachers' safety perceptions in teaching practice are influenced by both professional judgment and external accountability pressures from institutions and parents.

Limited resources and materials emerged as a critical barrier, offering empirical support for prior research on resource inequities in early childhood education (Yalcin & Erden, 2021; Ding & Yang, 2025). The study also reveals that weather conditions pose another obstacle to outdoor play (Chepngetich, 2023; Oh, 2023), although cultural variations exist. Finnish teachers believe that appropriate clothing can mitigate cold weather challenges and does not hinder the implementation of outdoor play (Yalcin & Erden, 2021). This perspective may stem from Nordic cultural concepts such as “there is no bad weather, only wrong clothing.” Resource limitations intersect with teacher capacity: overreliance on highly structured materials and passive teacher involvement promote a “material-cantered” rather than “child-cantered” approach to play, supporting Pyle and Danniels’ “high structure-low participation” hypothesis (Pyle & Danniels, 2017).

Educators play a crucial role in play and can promote children’s holistic development by intentionally maintaining a play-based learning environment that sustains children's cognitive engagement and active participation (Leggett & Newman, 2017). Teachers’ professional competence gaps in outdoor play pedagogy are consistent with the findings of Wolf et al., (2022), who identified insufficient preparation in pre-service training programs. Deficits in risk-benefit assessment and guiding natural exploration hinder teachers’ ability to translate their recognition of outdoor play’s developmental value into practice, highlighting the urgent need for targeted professional development (Dietze & Kashin, 2019). Additionally, during outdoor play, preschool teachers predominantly assume the roles of “organizer” and “leader” within an adult-led learning framework, and at times function solely as observers, intervening only to alert children to potential dangers (Doğan & Boz, 2019). While preschool educators perceive their roles during play as those of supporters, facilitators, and observers, they often lack a clear understanding of the specific actions associated with these roles (Kalpogianni, 2019).

Outdoor play implementation is hindered by parents' understanding and support, reflecting the significant influence of family factors in early childhood education as explained by Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological system theory. Parents' concerns about dirt and the belief that outdoor play interferes with learning time affect teachers' practices, aligning with findings that parents often perceive outdoor play as "non-educational" (Martin et al., (2021). This study highlights the bidirectional interaction between teachers and parents, demonstrating that overcoming this barrier requires not only information sharing but also collaborative efforts to build shared understanding. Preschool teachers can help shift parental attitudes through changes in their own practices (Gundersen et al., 2016). The findings underscore the importance of the mesosystem in Bronfenbrenner's model, indicating that family-school interactions significantly influence children's development.

By integrating these four barriers, this study proposes an ecological model that views safety, resources, professional capacity, and parental support as interrelated rather than isolated factors. For example, limited availability of movable materials (resources) increases adults’ vigilance (safety), which subsequently limits teachers’ opportunities to practice responsive teaching methods (professional capacity), thereby reinforcing parents’ scepticism about learning outcomes (parental support). This feedback loop helps explain why single-variable interventions (such as increasing equipment or holding workshops) often prove ineffective.

Overall, the results of this study have deepened the understanding of the complex factors influencing the implementation of outdoor play in preschool institutions. By examining teachers perceived values and the barriers they encounter, this study bridges the gap between theoretical advocacy for outdoor play and practical realities of its implementation. The identification of interrelated barriers aligns with the ecological system theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), highlighting that effective intervention must address influences at multiple levels–from individual teacher capabilities to institutional policies and broader societal values.

Conclusion

This qualitative case study offers valuable insights into preschool teachers' perceptions of the value of outdoor play. The findings reveal the high regard they hold for its benefits and the substantial barriers they encounter in implementing it effectively. Theoretically, this study contributes to the literature in three key areas. First, it extends research on the implementation gap in preschool education by demonstrating that perceived value does not necessarily translate into practice when constrained by multiple barriers. Second, it enriches the discourse on educational inequality by highlighting the quality of outdoor environments as a crucial dimension of educational equity. Third, it underscores the applicability of ecological models in understanding complex educational phenomena, illustrating how individual, institutional, and social factors interact to shape outdoor play experiences.

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. It focuses exclusively on a single case, which restricts the generalizability of the findings and underscores the need for cross-cultural studies to examine variations in barriers across different educational systems and cultural context. Furthermore, while the qualitative nature of the study offers in-depth insights, it does not allow for quantification of the relative significance of various barriers. Future research could address this limitation by adopting a mixed-methods approach that integrates qualitative exploration with quantitative analysis of the prevalence and impact of these barriers.

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CRediT Author Statement

Zhiying Liu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Collection & Analysis, Writing-Original Draft, Writing-Review & Editing.

Xinxin Yuan: Methodology, Data Analysis, Writing.

Dongfeng Ning: Data Collection

Lina You: Data Collection

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding this publication.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the deans of the kindergartens involved in the implementation of this study, who gave me guidance and opportunities to learn and practice. I would like to thank the kindergarten teachers who participated in this study for their warm cooperation and support.

Fundings

This work was supported by the Institute of Educational Sciences of Fujian Province under Grant [title: Research on empowering teachers with artificial intelligence to develop children’s critical thinking through outdoor play].

Yes