Trade pattern evolution of global REEs and analysis of China's trade network

YEZhanghuang1Emailchuckverna@sina.com

LinleiZHONG2Emailz_linlei@163.com

GuoBin3Emailbgjtgb5786@163.com

ZhaoJian4Emailzhaojian3712@163.com

1Guangzhou Maritime CollegeGuangzhouChina

2Deyang installation technician CollegeDeyangChina

3Baotou Iron and Steel(Group) Co., LtdBaotouChina

4IBarun Mining Branch Co. of Inner Mongolia Baotou Steel Union Co., LtdBaotouChina

YE Zhanghuang¹ ZHONG Linlei² Guo Bin³ Zhao Jian⁴

^{(1 Guangzhou Maritime College, Guangzhou, China, chuckverna@sina.com; 2 Deyang installation technician College, Deyang, China, z_linlei@163.com; 3 Baotou Iron and Steel(Group) Co., Ltd., Baotou, China, bgjtgb5786@163.com; 4 IBarun Mining Branch Co. of Inner Mongolia Baotou Steel Union Co., Ltd., Baotou, China, zhaojian3712@163.com)}

Abstract

REEs trade patterns and network are of great strategic importance for world-wide cooperation and industrial security. Based on the trade data of the global REEs from year 2000 to 2022, the paper analyzes its trade pattern evolution in terms of trade value, trade network and network influence. It further examines the correlation between REEs trade and economic development, and analyze Chinese trade network from the viewpoint of trade partners and trade concentration. The paper reveals that China, Japan, US, and Germany have consistently ranked as the top 4 in the trade values over the last two decades, while Australia is gradually becoming an increasingly important partner. China, Germany, US and France have always maintained high node degrees. Notably, Netherlands has exhibited a marked rise in node degree. 126 economic entities fall into four groups. Some recommendations have been put forward to better serve the global trade.

Keywords:

REEs

trade pattern

complex network

network visualization

0 Introduction

REEs-a group of 17 metals including the lanthanides, as well as the element of scandium and yttrium-are widely regarded as the “vitamins of modern industry”. Due to their unique physical properties[1], they are key raw materials for advanced manufacturing, such as medical equipment, national defense, and new energy vehicles[2–3].

Currently, the academic community has conducted extensive research on REEs pricing mechanism[4–7], policy evaluation [8–11], and industrial transformation[12–15]. However, with global trade uncertainties and worldwide adjustments in REEs policies, many scholars have shifted their focus to REEs international trade. Using REEs resource products as research subjects, they have carried out studies on REEs trade flows [16–20], and trade security strategies[21–35].

With the intensified geopolitical competition, Western nations are actively rebuilding their REEs industries and restructuring supply chains [36]. This shift may lead to a global REEs "decoupling" scenario, posing substantial challenges to Chinese REEs sector. To safeguard global industry security and maintain Chinese strategic advantages, the paper analyzes the REEs global trade pattern in terms of trade value, network structure, and network influence; and examines the correlation between trade features and economic development; and investigates Chinese trade network through its trading partners and trade concentration, based on global REEs trade data from the year of 2002 to 2022.

1 Data Sources and Methodology

1.1 Data Sources

To ensure the completeness and availability of data, this study obtains REEs trade records from the United Nations Comtrade Database from the year of 2002 to 2022. Following the Harmonized System (HS) of customs commodity codes and the classifications adopted by other scholars^{【37–38】}, REEs products are divided into three main categories: primary products, refined products, and manufactured products, as detailed in Table 1.

Table 1
Related REEs products and customs HS codes
Categories	Products	HS code
REEs primary products	REEs ores	253090
REEs primary products	REEs metals	280530
REEs refined products	REEs oxides	284690
	REEs salts	284610
	REEs titanium alloys	720799
REEs manufactured products	REEs permanent magnets	850511
REEs manufactured products	REEs phosphors	320650
(Source: Reference [44])

1.2 Methodology

The import and export relationships of REEs products among different global economic entities constitute a directed and weighted complex trade network. To analyze the structures of global REEs trade, each country is abstracted as a node in the network, trade relationships between countries are represented as edges, the REEs trade value serves as the weight of each edge. Based on this framework, the study constructs 20 annual comprehensive trade networks that illustrate global REEs trade flows from the year of 2002 to 2022.

2 Global REEs Trade Pattern Analysis

2.1 Trade Value

The REEs trade values are calculated in US dollars in the paper. Global REEs import and export values followed a generally similar trend from the year of 2002 to 2022. In 2022, global REE imports reached USD 30.05 billion, while exports totaled USD 58.70 billion (Fig. 1). The decade from 2002 to 2012 was marked by a continuous annual increase in global trade values, followed by a period of sustained contraction between 2012 and 2020, with a minor rebound observed in 2018.

Fig. 1

Global REEs trade value from 2002 to 2022

(Source: Reference [44])

Due to the diverse economic structures and resource endowments of global trading partners, their demand and supply for REEs vary greatly. To better understand trade dynamics, we analyze the top 10 economic entities in terms of REEs trade value from 2002 to 2022.

From the import side, China, Japan, the United States, and Germany consistently ranked as the top four economic entities from 2002 to 2022 (Table 2). They also rank among the highest in the global GDP list. In addition, South Korea, Hong Kong CHN, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand in Asia, France and Italy in Europe, as well as Mexico in the Americas, also play key roles in global REEs import markets.

Table 2
Global top 10 economic entities with the highest REEs import values from 2002 to 2022
2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

(Source: Reference [44])

On the exports side, China, Japan, Germany, and the United States consistently ranked the world’s leading exporters from 2002 to 2022. However, Australian REEs exports has been rising steadily, making it the largest global exporter in 2022 (Table 3).

Table 3
Top 10 economies with the highest global REEs export value from 2002 to 2022
2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
CHN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	AUS	DEU	JPN
DEU	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	USA	DEU
MYS	ESP	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	GBR	GBR	FRA	KOR	PHL	MYS	NLD	MYS	VNM	VNM
KOR	FRA	FRA	NLD	NLD	MYS	PHL	HKG	VNM	MYS	PHL
HKG	HKG	KOR	KOR	FRA	FRA	RUS	KOR	PHL	THA	KOR
GBR	UKR	ESP	ESP	PHL	NLD	NLD	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA
NLD	NLD	NLD	THA	MYS	KOR	KOR	AUS	NLD	PHL	MYS
(Source: Reference [44])

Since 2018, with the escalating trade tensions between China and the United States, China has tightened regulatory controls over REEs exports, imposing restrictions on several key products^【39】. This has deeply affected global supply chains. In this context, Mt. Weld REEs deposit in Australia has secured long-term export agreements as an alternative supplier^【40】. Although Hong Kong(CHN), Spain, Austria, Norway, and the Netherlands lack significant REEs resources, their roles as transit trade centers, contribute to market diversification.^【41】

In a word, China play an important role in both imports and exports. Policy dynamics in China have substantial impacts over the global markets. Meanwhile, Australia’s export rise and the steady demand-supply from the the United States, Japan and Germany have jointly shaped the global REEs trade pattern.

2.2 Trade network

To further understand the features of global REEs trade network, this study analyzes the following aspects: network size, network density, and network clustering coefficient.

Expansion in Network Size

The network size is defined by nodes and edges. The former refers to economic entities engaged in trade, while the latter refers to bilateral trade relationships, with more nodes and edges indicating broader global trade participation.

From 2002 to 2022, the REEs trade network expanded significantly. The average annual node number in the import network reached 137, while the export network 197, indicating more export players than import.. More than 80% of the global economic entities have participated in REEs trade, indicating that REEs resources have always been valued by different countries (Figs. 2). The edge number has increased steadily for both imports and exports in the same period (Figs. 3).

(Source: Reference [44])

Fig. 2

Node number of global REEs trade from 2002–2022

Figure 3 Edge number of global REEs trade from 2002–2022

(Source: Reference [44])

Decline in Network Density

The network density is measured by the proportion between actual edges and the theoretical maximum ones, with larger values reflecting the tighter trade connectivity^【42】.

The network density of the global REEs trade declined. From 2002 to 2022, import network density steadily declined from 0.051 to 0.041. Export network density dropped sharply from 0.042 in 2002 to 0.021 in 2004, then gradually increased, peaking at 0.042 in 2008, and fluctuated around 0.036 afterward(Fig. 4) .Overall, the connection tightness decreased slightly. However, the import network remains closer connection than the export network.

Fig. 4

Network density of global REEs trade from 2002–2022

(Source: Reference [44])

(3)

Rising in Network Clustering Coefficient

The clustering coefficient is calculated by the average of local clusters across all nodes. The higher value it is, the stronger consolidation degree of REEs trade it is^【43】.

The clustering coefficient has shown a general upward trend in the period.. The import network clustering coefficients went up from 0.56 in the year 2002 to 0.67 in the year of 2022, with notable dips in 2006, 2012 and 2020. It hit the bottom of 0.27 in 2012 and rose to the peak of 0.67 in 2022. The export network clustering coefficients went up from 0.57 in the year 2002 to 0.75 in the year of 2022, with notable dips in 2010. The lowest was 0.36 in 2010, while the highest is 0.75 in 2022 (Fig. 5). This suggests that REEs trade partners have formed tighter clusters.

Fig. 5

Network cluster coefficients of global REEs trade from 2002–2022

(Source: Reference [44])

2.3 Network Influence

The node degree represents the connection number between a given node and others in the REEs trade. i.e. the partner number for an economic entity within the trade network. In the trade network, China, Germany, the United States, and France have consistently in the node degree top list. Notably, the Netherlands experienced a significant increase in its node degree, ranking the third in 2022(Table 4). This indicates that China, France, the Netherlands, the United States, and Germany have established relatively stable trade connections with plenty of, partners. The REEs policies of these countries exert substantial influences and drive dynamic evolution of the global trade network.

Table 4
Top 10 REEs trade partners with the highest node degree in the network from 2002 to 2022
2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
DEU	USA	USA	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
USA	CHN	CHN	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	FRA
FRA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	NLD	NLD
GBR	GBR	GBR	FRA	FRA	KOR	FRA	NLD	NLD	DEU	USA
CHN	FRA	FRA	GBR	GBR	NLD	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	DEU
JPN	ITA	JPN	JPN	JPN	FRA	JPN	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR
ITA	JPN	ITA	ITA	KOR	MEX	CHE	JPN	JPN	IND	TUR
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	ITA	IND	AUT	TUR	IND	JPN	JPN
MEX	BEL	BEL	BEL	MEX	FRA	KOR	ITA	ITA	TUR	ITA
BEL	CHE	MEX	CHE	CHE	CHE	RUS	THA	THA	ITA	IND
(Source: Reference [44])

A visualization has been conducted according to the 2022 REEs trade values and node degree rankings, 126 global trade partners falls into four groups (Fig. 6).

Group I comprises the top 25% trade partners in both trade values and node degree rankings. The 26 members in this group are characterized by a great number of trade partners and high trade values. Representative countries include China (ranked 1st in both trade value and node degree), the United States (4th in trade value, 4th in node degree), and France (8th in trade value, 2nd in node degree). Partners in this group have big influence on the REEs trade network.

Group II includes partners with a high trade value ranking (top 50%) but a lower node degree ranking (bottom 50%). The 21 members in this group have considerable trade values but a few trade partners. Good examples are Egypt (ranked 40th in trade value, 92nd in node degree) and Iran (46th in trade value, 72nd in node degree).

Group III consists of partners with a low trade value ranking (bottom 50%) but a high node degree ranking (top 50%). The 26 partners in this group have low trade values but a larger number of trade partners. Representative economies include New Zealand (67th in trade value, 51st in node degree) and Nigeria (68th in trade value, 52nd in node degree).

Group IV consists of partners ranked in the bottom 50% for both trade values and node degrees. The 53 members in this group have low trade values and limited trade partners. Examples include Laos (115th in node degree, 125th in trade value) and Dominica (155th in node degree, 136th in trade value).

Fig. 6

Visualized classification of REEs trade partners in 2022

(Source: Reference [44])

2.4 Correlation Analysis

To display the relationship between REEs trade and economic development, Table 5 reveals a significant positive correlation between trade values and network node degrees.. Furthermore, the four trade indicators show a significant positive correlation with GDP (Gross Domestic Product), FDI (Foreign Direct Investment), and GNI (Gross National Income per capital)^[44]. Conversely, the indicators exhibit a negative correlation with RMRRG (Ratio between mineral resource rent and GDP)^[45]. This means that partners with more developed REEs trade networks and higher trade values tend to have a lower reliance on mineral resources.

Table 5
Relevant analysis results of the REEs trade network in G20 countries (regions)
Project	Import node degree	Export node degree	Import value	Export value	RMRRG	GDP	FDI	GNI
Import node degree	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Export node degree	0.7866***	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Import value	0.2964***	0.3470***	1	-	-	-	-	-
Export value	0.2677***	0.3472***	0.6304***	1	-	-	-	-
RMRRG	−0.3376***	−0.1379*	−0.2291***	−0.0238	1	-	-	-
GDP	0.5634***	0.5868***	0.6387***	0.4587***	−0.1865***	1	-	-
FDI	0.4291***	0.4582***	0.3807***	0.3354***	−0.1894***	0.7184***	1	-
GNI	0.5118***	0.5540***	0.5019***	0.3981***	−0.1843**	0.9999***	0.7423***	1
(Source: Reference [44]、 [45])
(Note: Asterisks denote statistical significance: * = 1%, = 5%, * = 10% level)

3. Analysis on Chinese REEs Trade Network

3.1 Trade Partners

(1)Import Trade Partners

China imports REEs from a wide range of countries across Asia, Oceania, America, and Europe (Table 6). From 2002 to 2014, Japan was the largest supplier of REEs to China in terms of trade value, whereas from 2016 to 2022, Australia took the lead. Additionally, South Korea, the Philippines, Thailand, and Malaysia have held significant positions in Chinese REEs import market.

Table 6
China’s top 10 import partners in terms of REEs values
2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS	AUS	AUS	AUS
KOR	KOR	THA	USA	PHL	PHL	AUS	JPN	JPN	VNM	USA
MYS	DEU	AUS	THA	THA	AUS	MYS	MYS	USA	USA	MMR
USA	USA	USA	PHL	AUS	MYS	PHL	CHL	MYS	JPN	BRA
AUS	ITA	PHL	AUS	DEU	KOR	DEU	PHL	CAN	BRA	MYS
ITA	HKG	KOR	KOR	MYS	DEU	KOR	KOR	MMR	MYS	JPN
HKG	AUS	DEU	IND	USA	USA	THA	DEU	PHL	VNM	VNM
PHL	ESP	ESP	MYS	KOR	THA	USA	VNM	VNM	PHL	ZWE
MMR	FRA	IND	DEU	CHL	IRN	CHL	USA	DEU	DEU	NGR
DEU	PHL	ITA	IRN	MMR	CHL	VNM	IRN	KOR	KOR	CHN
FRA	IND	HKG	HKG	FRA	VNM	IRN	THA	RUS	ARE	RUS
(Source: Reference [44])

Changes in Chinese REEs import trade values (Fig. 7) reveals an upward trend from Australia, Myanmar, and Brazil from 2002 to 2022. Conversely, imports from Japan and South Korea have declined. The changes may be influenced by international market prices, economic structures, and geopolitical relationship, but it is not an irreversible change^[46–47]. Despite the import declines from traditional partners between 2014 and 2022, China’s total import value continued to rise, reaching $10.7432 billion USD in 2022. This suggests a diversification of Chinese REEs import sources.

Fig. 7

Chinese REEs import trade values with main partners from 2002 to 2022

(Source: Reference [44])

Export Trade Partners

In China’s REEs export markets (Table 7), Japan has consistently maintained No. 1 position from 2002 to 2022, followed by the United States, Hong Kong CHN, Germany, and South Korea as major traditional destinations. Emerging export markets have included India, the Philippines, Vietnam and Thailand in recent years.

Table 7
China’s top 10 export partners in terms of REEs values
2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN
HKG	HKG	HKG	USA	USA	HKG	USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU
USA	USA	USA	HKG	HKG	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	DEU	HKG	KOR	KOR	VNM	KOR
DEU	ITA	NLD	NLD	DEU	KOR	KOR	HKG	VNM	KOR	VNM
NLD	NLD	SGP	DEU	NLD	FRA	NLD	VNM	THA	THA	THA
THA	FRA	DEU	ITA	ITA	NLD	THA	NLD	NLD	ITA	ITA
ITA	DEU	FRA	SGP	FRA	THA	ITA	THA	ITA	NLD	IND
SGP	SGP	ITA	FRA	SGP	ITA	VNM	ITA	HKG	IND	POL
FRA	THA	IND	IND	THA	PHL	MYS	DNK	MYS	PHL	NLD
MYS	GBR	GBR	THA	IND	CHE	IND	MYS	IND	HKG	PHL
(Source: Reference [44])

China’s REEs export value has shown a steady increase, with the export value reaching $6.6592 billion in 2022, nearly five times higher than that in 2002, Exports to Hong Kong CHN, Japan, Germany, South Korea, and the United States exhibit similar fluctuations, aligning with the overall trend of China's REEs export trade (Fig. 8)

Fig. 8

Chinese REEs export trade values with main partners from 2002 to 2022

(Source: Reference [44])

The ratios of REEs import and export trade values are greater than 1 for items of 253090 (REEs ores), 284690 (REEs oxides) and 320650 (REEs phosphors) from 2002 to 2022. Notably, the import value of 253090 was approximately 50 times higher than its export value in 2022. These indicate China’s substantial demand for REEs primary products and manufactured products. In contrast, for other REEs products, the ratios are less than 1. Notably, the import value of 280530 (REEs metals) was only 0.8 percent of its export value in 2022. These indicate that China exports a large number of REEs refined products to global markets.

Table 8
Value ratio of China's REEs import and export trade from 2002 to 2022
HS code	2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
253090	1.272	1.522	2.225	0.796	1.186	1.588	1.654	2.483	10.208	7.407	50.827
280530	0.016	0.005	0.002	0.014	0.004	0.008	0.013	0.009	0.008	0.075	0.008
284610	0.047	0.294	0.176	0.100	0.033	0.076	0.128	0.068	0.180	0.565	0.286
284690	0.082	0.105	0.160	0.037	0.052	0.062	0.220	0.399	0.604	2.002	1.630
720299	0.216	0.156	0.304	0.118	0.065	0.040	0.051	0.086	0.111	0.448	0.220
850511 320650	0.422 4.794	0.536 2.378	0.594 1.602	0.421 1.512	0.502 1.943	0.423 1.596	0.334 1.288	0.241 2.658	0.185 2.642	0.134 2.938	0.060 2.268
(Source: Reference [44])

3.2 Trade Concentration

Utilizing the concept of industrial concentration, a trade concentration index has been constructed^[48]. i.e., the ratio between China’s REEs trade value with the top 4 (CR4) or top 8 (CR8) partners with the global REEs trade value.

Firstly, the Chinese import concentration shows a fluctuating upward trend (Fig. 9). Taking CR4 as an example, the import trade network exhibited low concentration in 2002(CR4 < 30%), followed by moderate concentration (30% < CR4 < 55%) from 2004 to 2006, high concentration (55% < CR4 < 70%) from 2008 to 2016, and extremely high concentration (CR4 > 70%) from 2018 to 2022. Overall, China's import concentration has shown a gradual increase.

Secondly, the Chinese export concentration demonstrates a declining trend(Fig. 9). For example,, the export trade network exhibited high concentration (50% < CR4 < 70%) from 2002 to 2016, which decreased to moderate concentration (30% < CR4 < 55%) from 2018 to 2022. This indicates an increasing diversification of China's export partners, particularly including emerging markets such as India, the Philippines, and Vietnam.

Fig. 9

China's REEs trade concentration from 2002 to 2022

(Source: Reference [44])

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Conclusions

(1) Economic entities with high trade values occupy central positions within the global REEs trade network. China, Japan, the United States, and Germany have been the leading countries in terms of REEs trade values from 2002 to 2022. Australia has increasingly emerged as a key global player in the global trade. The above partners have jointly shaped the global REEs trade pattern.

(2) Analysis on the global REEs trade network shows that the network size has been increasing, while its density has decreased from 2002 to 2022. The network’s clustering coefficient has generally increased in the same period. Data show that 80% of global economic entities have participated in in REEs trade, with more export players than import ones. The REEs import network is denser than the export network, and the trend toward consideration within the trade network is more pronounced.

(3) Analysis on global REEs trade node degrees reveals that, China, Germany, the United States, and France have maintained a large number of trade partners from 2002 to 2022. The Netherlands experienced a notable rise in node degree. Visualization based on REEs trade values and node degree rankings in the 2022, 126 global partners falls into into four groups. China, France, and the United States, along with 23 other partners, belong to Group I, have big influence on the REEs trade network.

(4) Correlation analysis shows that REEs trade is positively correlated with economic development (GDP, FDI, GNI), while negatively correlated with dependence degree on mineral resources (RMRRG).

(5) China’s REEs import values significantly exceeds its export values. China exhibits a substantial demand for REEs primary and manufactured products, while exporting a higher value of refined products.

(6) China's import concentration is increasing, while export concentration is declining. Japan, Australia, South Korea, the Philippines and ASEAN are main import origin of China’s REEs. Japan, Hong Kong CHN, the United States, Germany, and South Korea are traditional export destinations for Chinese REEs, while emerging markets, such as India, the Philippines and Vietnam, have become increasingly important.

4.2 Recommendations

Based on the above findings, the following recommendations are proposed for global REEs industrial security.and sustainable develepment.

(1)

Scientifically improve REEs regulatory level

By establishing an international REEs regulatory alliance, we can balance interests between production and consumption countries. The alliance will share blacklist database, and cancel trade licenses of non-compliant enterprises.

Classification guidance is a must thing to do: civilian and military use. Market transaction rules will be observed in such civilian sectors as electric vehicles or wind power. while military use must be subjected to strict end-use examination. It is a feasible method to avoid the REEs abuses.

As an important REEs production country, China should make great contributions to the global regulation in order to lessen the waste of the precious REEs resource.

(2)

Dynamically stabilize REEs supply chain

Through global dynamic quotas, orderly mining of REEs resources will be ensured. A three-level ( enterprises, countries and transnational organizaitons) strategic reserve system will be established to guarantee stable supply during emergencies. Countries in Group I should take more responsibility to coordinate the REEs production capacity.

By implementing a digital identity system to specify REEs mining locations, processing methods, energy consumption, and transaction information, we can establish a blockchain-based certification for comprehensive traceability. This system will ensure the order of supply chain, and struggle against unfair and illegal activities.

As an indispensable country of global REEs trade flows, China could implement accurate oversight policies to stabilize the global REEs supply chain.

(3) Continuously promote REEs technological innovation

By establishing the Global REEs Innovation Coalition (GRIIC), we can share a global innovation fund, implement a common patent pool mechanism, enable cross-authorization among Sino-America-Europe laboratories, and jointly maintain a REEs clean extraction and substitute material database to achieve technological innovation and reduce transfer costs^[49].

China could pioneer a REEs Industry Supercluster–developing zero-carbon smelting bases in Baotou and Ganzhou, establishing an advanced magnetic materials innovation belt in the Yangtze River Delta, and creating electrical machinery recycling hubs in the Pearl River Delta. An integrated regional closed-loop system would be formed to deliver better REEs products and technologies globally^[50].

actively deepen REEs trade cooperation

By exploring REEs trade new market, our aims are to accelerate the trade cooperation between major REEs trade players and emerging parntners, and founding REEs trade complementary network.

China should establish joint REEs industrial parks with neighboring countries by making good use of the "REEs Cooperation mechanism along One Belt and One Road", and achieve production capacity coordination by exchanging separation technology for resource right^[51]. Simultaneously, utilizing RCEP's duty-free framework to boost REEs trade within the region and the global integration.

Author Contribution

YE Zhanghuang, ZHONG Linlei wrote the main manuscript and Guo Bin, Zhao Jian provided the data support. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Data Availability

Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.

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Funding Declarations

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China(Grant No. 42072114); Geological survey project(Grant No.DD20243486); National Key Research and Development Program of China(Grant No.2022YFC2905301); Baotou Iron and Steel Group Co., Ltd. Technology Achievement Transformation Project(Grant No.HE2228)

Table 4 Top 10 REEs trade partners with the highest node degree in the network from 2002 to 2022

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
DEU	USA	USA	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
USA	CHN	CHN	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	FRA
FRA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	NLD	NLD
GBR	GBR	GBR	FRA	FRA	KOR	FRA	NLD	NLD	DEU	USA
CHN	FRA	FRA	GBR	GBR	NLD	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	DEU
JPN	ITA	JPN	JPN	JPN	FRA	JPN	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR
ITA	JPN	ITA	ITA	KOR	MEX	CHE	JPN	JPN	IND	TUR
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	ITA	IND	AUT	TUR	IND	JPN	JPN
MEX	BEL	BEL	BEL	MEX	FRA	KOR	ITA	ITA	TUR	ITA
BEL	CHE	MEX	CHE	CHE	CHE	RUS	THA	THA	ITA	IND

Table 1 Related REEs products and customs HS codes

Categories	Products	HS code
REEs primary products	REEs ores	253090
REEs primary products	REEs metals	280530
REEs refined products	REEs oxides	284690
	REEs salts	284610
	REEs titanium alloys	720799
REEs manufactured products	REEs permanent magnets	850511
REEs manufactured products	REEs phosphors	320650

Table 3 Top 10 economies with the highest global REEs export value from 2002 to 2022

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
CHN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	AUS	DEU	JPN
DEU	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	USA	DEU
MYS	ESP	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	GBR	GBR	FRA	KOR	PHL	MYS	NLD	MYS	VNM	VNM
KOR	FRA	FRA	NLD	NLD	MYS	PHL	HKG	VNM	MYS	PHL
HKG	HKG	KOR	KOR	FRA	FRA	RUS	KOR	PHL	THA	KOR
GBR	UKR	ESP	ESP	PHL	NLD	NLD	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA
NLD	NLD	NLD	THA	MYS	KOR	KOR	AUS	NLD	PHL	MYS

Table 5 Relevant analysis results of the REEs trade network in G20 countries (regions)

Project	Import node degree	Export node degree	Import value	Export value	RMRRG	GDP	FDI	GNI
Import node degree	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Export node degree	0.7866***	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
Import value	0.2964***	0.3470***	1	-	-	-	-	-
Export value	0.2677***	0.3472***	0.6304***	1	-	-	-	-
RMRRG	−0.3376***	−0.1379*	−0.2291***	−0.0238	1	-	-	-
GDP	0.5634***	0.5868***	0.6387***	0.4587***	−0.1865***	1	-	-
FDI	0.4291***	0.4582***	0.3807***	0.3354***	−0.1894***	0.7184***	1	-
GNI	0.5118***	0.5540***	0.5019***	0.3981***	−0.1843**	0.9999***	0.7423***	1

Table 2 Global top 10 economic entities with the highest REEs import values from 2002 to 2022

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

Table 6 China’s top 10 import partners in terms of REEs values

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS	AUS	AUS	AUS
KOR	KOR	THA	USA	PHL	PHL	AUS	JPN	JPN	VNM	USA
MYS	DEU	AUS	THA	THA	AUS	MYS	MYS	USA	USA	MMR
USA	USA	USA	PHL	AUS	MYS	PHL	CHL	MYS	JPN	BRA
AUS	ITA	PHL	AUS	DEU	KOR	DEU	PHL	CAN	BRA	MYS
ITA	HKG	KOR	KOR	MYS	DEU	KOR	KOR	MMR	MYS	JPN
HKG	AUS	DEU	IND	USA	USA	THA	DEU	PHL	VNM	VNM
PHL	ESP	ESP	MYS	KOR	THA	USA	VNM	VNM	PHL	ZWE
MMR	FRA	IND	DEU	CHL	IRN	CHL	USA	DEU	DEU	NGR
DEU	PHL	ITA	IRN	MMR	CHL	VNM	IRN	KOR	KOR	CHN
FRA	IND	HKG	HKG	FRA	VNM	IRN	THA	RUS	ARE	RUS

Table 7 China’s top 10 export partners in terms of REEs values

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN
HKG	HKG	HKG	USA	USA	HKG	USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU
USA	USA	USA	HKG	HKG	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	DEU	HKG	KOR	KOR	VNM	KOR
DEU	ITA	NLD	NLD	DEU	KOR	KOR	HKG	VNM	KOR	VNM
NLD	NLD	SGP	DEU	NLD	FRA	NLD	VNM	THA	THA	THA
THA	FRA	DEU	ITA	ITA	NLD	THA	NLD	NLD	ITA	ITA
ITA	DEU	FRA	SGP	FRA	THA	ITA	THA	ITA	NLD	IND
SGP	SGP	ITA	FRA	SGP	ITA	VNM	ITA	HKG	IND	POL
FRA	THA	IND	IND	THA	PHL	MYS	DNK	MYS	PHL	NLD
MYS	GBR	GBR	THA	IND	CHE	IND	MYS	IND	HKG	PHL

Table 8 Value ratio of China's REEs import and export trade from 2002 to 2022

HS code	2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
253090	1.272	1.522	2.225	0.796	1.186	1.588	1.654	2.483	10.208	7.407	50.827
280530	0.016	0.005	0.002	0.014	0.004	0.008	0.013	0.009	0.008	0.075	0.008
284610	0.047	0.294	0.176	0.100	0.033	0.076	0.128	0.068	0.180	0.565	0.286
284690	0.082	0.105	0.160	0.037	0.052	0.062	0.220	0.399	0.604	2.002	1.630
720299	0.216	0.156	0.304	0.118	0.065	0.040	0.051	0.086	0.111	0.448	0.220
850511 320650	0.422 4.794	0.536 2.378	0.594 1.602	0.421 1.512	0.502 1.943	0.423 1.596	0.334 1.288	0.241 2.658	0.185 2.642	0.134 2.938	0.060 2.268

Yes

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
DEU	USA	USA	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
USA	CHN	CHN	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	FRA
FRA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	NLD	NLD
GBR	GBR	GBR	FRA	FRA	KOR	FRA	NLD	NLD	DEU	USA
CHN	FRA	FRA	GBR	GBR	NLD	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	DEU
JPN	ITA	JPN	JPN	JPN	FRA	JPN	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR
ITA	JPN	ITA	ITA	KOR	MEX	CHE	JPN	JPN	IND	TUR
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	ITA	IND	AUT	TUR	IND	JPN	JPN
MEX	BEL	BEL	BEL	MEX	FRA	KOR	ITA	ITA	TUR	ITA
BEL	CHE	MEX	CHE	CHE	CHE	RUS	THA	THA	ITA	IND

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
CHN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	AUS	DEU	JPN
DEU	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	USA	DEU
MYS	ESP	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	GBR	GBR	FRA	KOR	PHL	MYS	NLD	MYS	VNM	VNM
KOR	FRA	FRA	NLD	NLD	MYS	PHL	HKG	VNM	MYS	PHL
HKG	HKG	KOR	KOR	FRA	FRA	RUS	KOR	PHL	THA	KOR
GBR	UKR	ESP	ESP	PHL	NLD	NLD	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA
NLD	NLD	NLD	THA	MYS	KOR	KOR	AUS	NLD	PHL	MYS

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS	AUS	AUS	AUS
KOR	KOR	THA	USA	PHL	PHL	AUS	JPN	JPN	VNM	USA
MYS	DEU	AUS	THA	THA	AUS	MYS	MYS	USA	USA	MMR
USA	USA	USA	PHL	AUS	MYS	PHL	CHL	MYS	JPN	BRA
AUS	ITA	PHL	AUS	DEU	KOR	DEU	PHL	CAN	BRA	MYS
ITA	HKG	KOR	KOR	MYS	DEU	KOR	KOR	MMR	MYS	JPN
HKG	AUS	DEU	IND	USA	USA	THA	DEU	PHL	VNM	VNM
PHL	ESP	ESP	MYS	KOR	THA	USA	VNM	VNM	PHL	ZWE
MMR	FRA	IND	DEU	CHL	IRN	CHL	USA	DEU	DEU	NGR
DEU	PHL	ITA	IRN	MMR	CHL	VNM	IRN	KOR	KOR	CHN
FRA	IND	HKG	HKG	FRA	VNM	IRN	THA	RUS	ARE	RUS

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN
HKG	HKG	HKG	USA	USA	HKG	USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU
USA	USA	USA	HKG	HKG	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	DEU	HKG	KOR	KOR	VNM	KOR
DEU	ITA	NLD	NLD	DEU	KOR	KOR	HKG	VNM	KOR	VNM
NLD	NLD	SGP	DEU	NLD	FRA	NLD	VNM	THA	THA	THA
THA	FRA	DEU	ITA	ITA	NLD	THA	NLD	NLD	ITA	ITA
ITA	DEU	FRA	SGP	FRA	THA	ITA	THA	ITA	NLD	IND
SGP	SGP	ITA	FRA	SGP	ITA	VNM	ITA	HKG	IND	POL
FRA	THA	IND	IND	THA	PHL	MYS	DNK	MYS	PHL	NLD
MYS	GBR	GBR	THA	IND	CHE	IND	MYS	IND	HKG	PHL

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
DEU	USA	USA	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
USA	CHN	CHN	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	FRA
FRA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	NLD	NLD
GBR	GBR	GBR	FRA	FRA	KOR	FRA	NLD	NLD	DEU	USA
CHN	FRA	FRA	GBR	GBR	NLD	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	DEU
JPN	ITA	JPN	JPN	JPN	FRA	JPN	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR
ITA	JPN	ITA	ITA	KOR	MEX	CHE	JPN	JPN	IND	TUR
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	ITA	IND	AUT	TUR	IND	JPN	JPN
MEX	BEL	BEL	BEL	MEX	FRA	KOR	ITA	ITA	TUR	ITA
BEL	CHE	MEX	CHE	CHE	CHE	RUS	THA	THA	ITA	IND

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
CHN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	AUS	DEU	JPN
DEU	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	USA	DEU
MYS	ESP	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	GBR	GBR	FRA	KOR	PHL	MYS	NLD	MYS	VNM	VNM
KOR	FRA	FRA	NLD	NLD	MYS	PHL	HKG	VNM	MYS	PHL
HKG	HKG	KOR	KOR	FRA	FRA	RUS	KOR	PHL	THA	KOR
GBR	UKR	ESP	ESP	PHL	NLD	NLD	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA
NLD	NLD	NLD	THA	MYS	KOR	KOR	AUS	NLD	PHL	MYS

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS	AUS	AUS	AUS
KOR	KOR	THA	USA	PHL	PHL	AUS	JPN	JPN	VNM	USA
MYS	DEU	AUS	THA	THA	AUS	MYS	MYS	USA	USA	MMR
USA	USA	USA	PHL	AUS	MYS	PHL	CHL	MYS	JPN	BRA
AUS	ITA	PHL	AUS	DEU	KOR	DEU	PHL	CAN	BRA	MYS
ITA	HKG	KOR	KOR	MYS	DEU	KOR	KOR	MMR	MYS	JPN
HKG	AUS	DEU	IND	USA	USA	THA	DEU	PHL	VNM	VNM
PHL	ESP	ESP	MYS	KOR	THA	USA	VNM	VNM	PHL	ZWE
MMR	FRA	IND	DEU	CHL	IRN	CHL	USA	DEU	DEU	NGR
DEU	PHL	ITA	IRN	MMR	CHL	VNM	IRN	KOR	KOR	CHN
FRA	IND	HKG	HKG	FRA	VNM	IRN	THA	RUS	ARE	RUS

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN
HKG	HKG	HKG	USA	USA	HKG	USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU
USA	USA	USA	HKG	HKG	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	DEU	HKG	KOR	KOR	VNM	KOR
DEU	ITA	NLD	NLD	DEU	KOR	KOR	HKG	VNM	KOR	VNM
NLD	NLD	SGP	DEU	NLD	FRA	NLD	VNM	THA	THA	THA
THA	FRA	DEU	ITA	ITA	NLD	THA	NLD	NLD	ITA	ITA
ITA	DEU	FRA	SGP	FRA	THA	ITA	THA	ITA	NLD	IND
SGP	SGP	ITA	FRA	SGP	ITA	VNM	ITA	HKG	IND	POL
FRA	THA	IND	IND	THA	PHL	MYS	DNK	MYS	PHL	NLD
MYS	GBR	GBR	THA	IND	CHE	IND	MYS	IND	HKG	PHL

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
DEU	USA	USA	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
USA	CHN	CHN	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	FRA
FRA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	USA	NLD	NLD
GBR	GBR	GBR	FRA	FRA	KOR	FRA	NLD	NLD	DEU	USA
CHN	FRA	FRA	GBR	GBR	NLD	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	DEU
JPN	ITA	JPN	JPN	JPN	FRA	JPN	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR
ITA	JPN	ITA	ITA	KOR	MEX	CHE	JPN	JPN	IND	TUR
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	ITA	IND	AUT	TUR	IND	JPN	JPN
MEX	BEL	BEL	BEL	MEX	FRA	KOR	ITA	ITA	TUR	ITA
BEL	CHE	MEX	CHE	CHE	CHE	RUS	THA	THA	ITA	IND

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
CHN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	AUS	DEU	JPN
DEU	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	DEU	USA	DEU
MYS	ESP	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	HKG	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	GBR	GBR	FRA	KOR	PHL	MYS	NLD	MYS	VNM	VNM
KOR	FRA	FRA	NLD	NLD	MYS	PHL	HKG	VNM	MYS	PHL
HKG	HKG	KOR	KOR	FRA	FRA	RUS	KOR	PHL	THA	KOR
GBR	UKR	ESP	ESP	PHL	NLD	NLD	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA
NLD	NLD	NLD	THA	MYS	KOR	KOR	AUS	NLD	PHL	MYS

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN	CHN
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS
USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	JPN
DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA	USA	USA	USA	AUS	USA	DEU
KOR	FRA	FRA	THA	KOR	PHL	MYS	MYS	USA	AUS	USA
FRA	KOR	THA	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	AUS	MYS	VNM	PHL
GBR	HKG	KOR	MAR	THA	MYS	VNM	KOR	KOR	THA	VNM
MEX	ESP	GBR	HKG	MYS	HKG	KOR	VNM	PHL	KOR	MYS
MYS	THA	ESP	NLD	PHL	KOR	HKG	PHL	VNM	MYS	THA
HKG	ITA	ITA	KOR	HKG	NLD	FRA	FRA	FRA	PHL	KOR

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	AUS	AUS	AUS	AUS
KOR	KOR	THA	USA	PHL	PHL	AUS	JPN	JPN	VNM	USA
MYS	DEU	AUS	THA	THA	AUS	MYS	MYS	USA	USA	MMR
USA	USA	USA	PHL	AUS	MYS	PHL	CHL	MYS	JPN	BRA
AUS	ITA	PHL	AUS	DEU	KOR	DEU	PHL	CAN	BRA	MYS
ITA	HKG	KOR	KOR	MYS	DEU	KOR	KOR	MMR	MYS	JPN
HKG	AUS	DEU	IND	USA	USA	THA	DEU	PHL	VNM	VNM
PHL	ESP	ESP	MYS	KOR	THA	USA	VNM	VNM	PHL	ZWE
MMR	FRA	IND	DEU	CHL	IRN	CHL	USA	DEU	DEU	NGR
DEU	PHL	ITA	IRN	MMR	CHL	VNM	IRN	KOR	KOR	CHN
FRA	IND	HKG	HKG	FRA	VNM	IRN	THA	RUS	ARE	RUS

2002	2004	2006	2008	2010	2012	2014	2016	2018	2020	2022
JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN	JPN
HKG	HKG	HKG	USA	USA	HKG	USA	USA	USA	USA	DEU
USA	USA	USA	HKG	HKG	USA	DEU	DEU	DEU	DEU	USA
KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	KOR	DEU	HKG	KOR	KOR	VNM	KOR
DEU	ITA	NLD	NLD	DEU	KOR	KOR	HKG	VNM	KOR	VNM
NLD	NLD	SGP	DEU	NLD	FRA	NLD	VNM	THA	THA	THA
THA	FRA	DEU	ITA	ITA	NLD	THA	NLD	NLD	ITA	ITA
ITA	DEU	FRA	SGP	FRA	THA	ITA	THA	ITA	NLD	IND
SGP	SGP	ITA	FRA	SGP	ITA	VNM	ITA	HKG	IND	POL
FRA	THA	IND	IND	THA	PHL	MYS	DNK	MYS	PHL	NLD
MYS	GBR	GBR	THA	IND	CHE	IND	MYS	IND	HKG	PHL