The ecological environmental issues facing the world have become increasingly severe with rapid economic development. Over the past few decades, as China has undergone swift industrialization and urbanization, it has faced serious ecological challenges, including air pollution, water quality deterioration, and declines in biodiversity(Bian et al., 2024; Lal et al., 2022; Lewis, 2018). Urban centers are areas where populations are highly concentrated, and their ecological security concerns not only the flora and fauna within the ecosystem but also closely relates to the lives of the human population. Parks are vital green patches in urban centers that play crucial roles in purifying the air and improving urban environmental functions(Ge et al., 2024). Worldwide, an array of legal frameworks, planning strategies, and scientific research initiatives have been implemented to safeguard and rehabilitate urban ecological environments(T. Liu et al., 2023; W. Zhang, Zhou, Chen, Fan, & Health, 2022; Zhou, Yi, Su, & Sun, 2023). For example, experts and scholars have conducted numerous studies at the microscopic and mesoscopic levels, such as on accessibility, and building a framework for improving the relationship between people and green space provision, aiming to optimize the urban ecological environment(Liang, Yan, Yan, & Zhang, 2024; Ma, Brindley, Wang, Lange, & Practice, 2025; Ma, Brindley, Lange, & Planning, 2024). Due to the vulnerability of urban ecosystems and the scarcity of water resources, Ecological security has become an important issue in achieving sustainable social development.

As landscape ecology has evolved, the emphasis in ecological conservation and restoration research has transitioned from primarily conducting ecological risk assessments to designing and implementing more comprehensive ecological networks. This shift has cultivated a wider emphasis on the systematic integrated management of ecological conservation. Moreover, it encourages the assessment of ecosystem integrity and connectivity(HAN et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2021). In this context, the Ecological Security Pattern (ESP) framework, comprising 'ecological sources—resistance surfaces—ecological corridors', has been progressively formulated(Q. Li, Zhou, & Yi, 2022). Within this framework, ecological sources are defined as areas capable of providing biodiversity and ecological services. Resistance surfaces are areas that may pose barriers to species migration or affect the normal functioning of ecosystem services. Ecological corridors are the pathways that link ecological sources(C. Chen, Shi, Lu, Yang, & Liu, 2020). The ESP framework promotes the circulation of ecological resources within urban contexts, also plays a pivotal role in guiding urban planning and fostering regional sustainable development(Bian et al., 2024). Attention is focused on how to effectively identify ecological source areas, construct scientific resistance surfaces, and extract functional ecological corridors(F. Zhang, Jia, Liu, Li, & Gao, 2024). These steps not only help planners identify key biodiversity areas but also aid in predicting and mitigating the potential impacts of urban development. Consequently, the significance of the ESP in the construction of ecological environments is increasingly highlighted. The Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) model and the Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) model have become two core tools for constructing ESP. The MSPA model identifies ecological core areas, edge areas, and corridors through morphological analysis of landscape structures, providing a spatial basis for the construction of ecological networks. Meanwhile, the MCR model enhances the connectivity and stability of ecosystems by optimizing connectivity within the ecological network and identifying potential ecological corridors(Dong et al., 2020; C. Hu, Wang, Wang, Sun, & Zhang, 2022; Ye, Yang, & Xu, 2020). A substantial body of research demonstrates that the MSPA model can effectively reveals the landscape fragmentation and the spatial relationship between landscape elements(J. Liu et al., 2023; Luo, Zhu, & Fu, 2024; Qin, Dai, Li, Zhang, & Peng, 2024; Wei, Halike, Yao, Chen, & Balati, 2022). Consequently, these models are gradually being applied to the study of ecological networks in cities and watersheds. For instance, studies in Harbin City, Mudanjiang City, and the Dawen River Basin have not only optimizes the method of extracting sources and corridors but also enhanced the practicality and scientific validity of ecological network designs by integrating ecological functions and dynamic variables of human interventions(P.-X. Liu et al., 2024; Liu, Lu, Xu, Zhou, & Zhang, 2024; F. Zhang et al., 2024).

Research on urban ecological security patterns employing the MSPA-MCR model has progressed both domestically and internationally. However, most studies primarily focus on variables such as ecological safety, landscape connectivity, and the assessment of ecological functions. These studies commonly select patches based on patch size and attributes. Additionally, the methodology for constructing ecological resistance surfaces typically involves resistance allocation or the development of corresponding assessment systems(Yan et al., 2019). The identification of ecological corridors necessitates the utilization of constructed resistance surfaces, which are generally modified based on elements like slope and elevation(Wei et al., 2022). Consequently, the potential ecological corridors that are identified can function as optimal routes for the circulation of resources(Santos et al., 2018). Nevertheless, earlier studies on urban Ecological Security Patterns (ESP) frequently encountered a limitation:They fail to explain well the impact of socio-demographic factors on regional ecology(Wei et al., 2022). Moreover, during the construction of resistance surfaces, most current studies adopt a method of constructing a resistance factor assessment framework. Although this method is widely used, straightforward, and easy to interpret and manage, it often results in the loss of much data detail and is significantly influenced by human factors(W. Chen, Liu, & Wang, 2024; Guan, Hu, & Li, 2024; Xu, Liu, Sun, & Qi, 2024). Furthermore, current research on the application of ESP in semi-humid areas is relatively scarce. Balancing ecological protection with urban expansion remains an unresolved issue. This study introduces an innovative approach by merging the MSPA and MCR models to formulate and refine the ESP for cities located in semi-humid regions. It specifically incorporates human activity factors into the ecological resistance surface, creating a 'Natural-Human Activity Composite Resistance Factor' and employs a method that combines hierarchical processing with normalization. This approach aims to standardize the process uniformly, overcoming the limitations of traditional hierarchical processing in data handling. By eliminating the differences in dimensions and metrics among various data sources, the method enhances the accuracy and applicability of the model. It not only addresses the insufficient consideration of human disturbances in existing research but also provides more realistic strategies for optimizing ecological security. Focusing on typical cities like Luoyang, the study offering suggestions for addressing specific issues in constructing ESP under the backdrop of rapid urbanization in semi-humid areas, and provides new insights for ecological environment restoration.

As a prominent city in the Central Plains region and a quintessential example of China's semi-humid areas, Luoyang boasts a unique geographical and cultural background. Known as the "Ancient Capital of Thirteen Dynasties," Luoyang is not only an important cradle of Chinese culture but also a key area for national ecological protection and construction(Ge et al., 2024). The ecological security of Luoyang, a major city in the Central Plains region, is intrinsically connected to the preservation of its cultural heritage and the city's sustainable development. Consequently, this research is centered on Luoyang City, employing a combined use of the MSPA and MCR models to establish an ESP that reflects the unique local attributes. This approach is intended to provide a model for other and semi-humid regions facing similar ecological challenges. Our objectives are: (1) to identify core areas using MSPA and landscape connectivity indices; (2) to conduct a thorough analysis of resistance variables derived from natural and human factors, and to analyze the directionality and spatial clustering of the resistance surface; (3)to identify different levels of importance corridors, thereby creating an ecological network. And analyze the deficiencies in the established ecological network and optimize it;(4)to combine the human resources and cultural resources of Luoyang City, a solution to the urban ecological problem is given.

This study constructed the ESP for the central urban area of Luoyang. The framework of this methodology is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Urban ecosystems in semi-humid regions face unique challenges due to rapid urbanization and ecological fragility. This study advances the integration of ecological security pattern (ESP) frameworks by coupling the MSPA and MCR model with innovative resistance factors, offering a replicable methodology for balancing ecological conservation with urban development in vulnerable environments. The findings underscore the critical role of harmonizing natural and anthropogenic factors in constructing resilient ecological networks, particularly in regions where human activities intensely intersect with fragile ecosystems.

The research demonstrates that a holistic approach to ESP construction—incorporating landscape connectivity, resistance surface optimization, and strategic corridor design—can mitigate fragmentation and enhance biodiversity conservation. By prioritizing core ecological sources and corridors while integrating human activity dynamics, the proposed model provides a scalable framework for urban planners to address connectivity gaps and spatial inequities in ecological resource distribution. This approach not only strengthens regional ecological resilience but also aligns with broader goals of sustainable urbanization, emphasizing the need for adaptive management in rapidly developing areas.

Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of interdisciplinary methodologies in addressing complex ecological challenges. The MSPA-MCR integration offers a nuanced understanding of landscape structure-function relationships, enabling targeted interventions that transcend traditional sectoral planning. Such frameworks are pivotal for guiding policy decisions that reconcile economic growth with ecological integrity, particularly in culturally and historically significant regions like Luoyang.

In a global context, this work contributes to the evolving discourse on urban ecological security by demonstrating how localized interventions can inform universal strategies for climate-resilient cities. It advocates for a paradigm shift toward proactive ecological network design, emphasizing connectivity as a cornerstone of urban sustainability. Future applications of this model could empower cities worldwide to navigate the dual imperatives of development and conservation, fostering ecosystems that thrive alongside human progress.