^4,5*Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology

ICARE Complex, HIT Campus, Haldia, West Bengal, India

⁶ Dept. Of Electronics And Instrumentation Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology

ICARE Complex, HIT Campus, Haldia, West Bengal, India

At the moment, scientists are concentrating on creating materials at the nanoscale for the best performance. A high absorption rate and a large surface area to volume ratio are two benefits of nanoscale materials. The material is rummaged in a diversity of applications, such as nanoscale photovoltaic cells, [1, 2] in which the structure's high rate of solar energy absorption is due to the nanoparticles. This demonstrates that the rate at which solar energy is absorbed increases with particle size. Different materials can be found at the nanoscale, such as nanoparticles, Nanopowders, nanorods, nanotubes, and nanowires. Nanomaterials exist in zero, one, two, and three dimensions, among other dimensionalities. Because of their big superficial area and porosity, one-dimensional polymers are widely used in many different applications [3, 4]. One substance that is known to have positive qualities is carbon-type material, which includes high durability, environmental safety, abundance, and stability. Their superior chemical stability in both acidic and alkaline environments across a broad temperature range makes them the best options for electrodes in electrically powered devices. Numerous carbon allotropes are accessible, including graphene, carbon nanotubes, buckminsterfullerene, and nano-diamonds [5, 6]. Because of its special properties, including its “high specific surface area (2630 m2 g − 1)”, good chemical stability, and excellent electrical conductivity, graphene is valued highly in energy conversion and storage applications.[7]

When considering alternative power sources, PEM fuel cells offer numerous benefits. Among these advantages are things like burning at lower temperatures. PEM fuel cells are claimed to produce clean, stable fuel in comparison to other energy-generating methods. PEM fuel cells have a high degree of dependability for both stationary and mobile power applications. This includes using them to replace engines that run on fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel in the transportation sector. PEM fuel cells can be used in vigor storage applications in addition to being standalone power generators when combined with renewable energy sources. It can be utilized as a single cell for low-power needs or as part of a cell stack to combine multiple cells for higher voltage and electricity [8, 9].

1.1 Prospects for PEM Fuel Cells

Commercialization remains a major concern despite the PEM fuel cell's outstanding feature as a power source and all of its notable development accomplishments. It has significant issues with durability, performance, and cost. Platinum is a catalyst used in fuel cell technology, specifically PEM fuel cell technology. One of the most expensive parts of fuel cells is the platinum catalyst. The efficient use of platinum catalysts in fuel cell design has the potential to directly lower costs. Additionally, locating a catalyst that replaces platinum will lower the fuel cell's cost even more.

Fuel cells are typically a little bit larger than batteries of equivalent capacity. However, PEM fuel cell producers and researchers have recently carried out several experiments aimed at reducing fuel cell size and weight to satisfy the full requirements of portable applications. The fuel cell's mechanical robustness is regarded as a crucial performance characteristic as a power source, especially for transportation applications [10].

Because of their detrimental effects on the environment, the topics of ecological devastation, ozone layer depletion, and global warming have generated a lot of discussion. The main source of energy for human activity, the burning of fossil fuels, is one of the root causes of these problems. Significant advancements in alternative power conversion technologies, including fuel cell systems, are therefore urgently needed to protect the environment, save costs, and convert energy with high efficiency [11]. These days, nanotechnology is helping to make current technology more efficient. It also has a lot of potential to improve the environment and lessen the effects of energy production, storage, and use [12]. Superior materials and manufacturing processes can be improved through nanotechnology's special ability to create novel structures at the atomic scale, leading to substances and phenomena at the nanoscale.

Fuel cell generators are electrochemical devices that use an electro-catalytic process to convert the chemical energy retained by fuel directly into electrical currents. Due to its notable features, this type of device has been the target of fresh energy technology development. In contrast to batteries, fuel cells are flexible, have a high potential efficiency, don't require recharging, and are capable of producing electricity as long as fuel is available. The three primary constituents of a fuel cell, collectively denoted as the membrane-electrode assembly (MEA), are an anode, a cathode, and an ion-conducting electrolyte [13]. There are numerous ways to categorize fuel cell technologies, including charge carrier, fuel type, oxidizer type, and operating temperature. Every fuel cell type has pros and cons when compared to the others, but overall, they seem like a viable alternative to current electricity generation technologies if the Earth experiences significant environmental harm and oil runs out [14].

1.2 Enhancing Energy and Power Densities

In recent years, fuel cell devices have shown enhanced reliability and reduced expenses due to the integration of nanomaterials. The application of nanotechnology in manufacturing enhances surface area and aspect ratio, leading to increased energy and power densities, extended shelf life, and simplified reduction in size. These characteristics are crucial for advancing fuel cell technology in portable electronic gadgets [15]. Nanomaterials are being more frequently employed in the processes of producing, purifying, and storing hydrogen for use in fuel cells [16]. Carbon nanotubes have found applications in fuel cells, such as in gas diffusion layers based on carbon nanotubes, electrocatalysts supported by carbon nanotubes, nanocomposite bipolar plates that include multi-walled carbon dioxide nanotubes, and Nafion membranes that have been altered with multiwall nanotubes of carbon.

The primary benefit of SOFC systems for effective electricity production is their capability to utilize hydrocarbon fuels directly, eliminating the need for ahead fuel preparation processes, such as reforming [21]. The arrangement of components for a flat design of the SOFC system is presented herein. This document presents an organization of parts for the flat layout of the SOFC system. The membrane-electrode assembly comprises an electrolyte located between the anode and cathode, which are positioned among metal interconnect structures. The interconnect structure includes the development of fuel and air channels. The electrolyte is composed of a dense ceramic material, including “yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) or gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC)”. This material exhibits permeability for gas flow and serves as a conduit for oxygen ions (O2) [24]. The composite electrodes are composed of permeable metal-loaded ceramics (cermets), including Ni– “YSZ for the anode and Sr-doped LaMnO3 (LSM) for the cathode”. These materials can act as mixed technological and ionic conductors, promoting the expansion of single-phase limits “(TPB)” and improving electrocatalytic feedback.

The SOFC system involves intricate transport, chemical in nature, and electrochemical processes, with associated transport resistances and activation barriers significantly influencing the system's operational performance. Several MEA-level processes are illustrated in Fig. 2. At the gas-cathode-electrolyte three-phase boundaries, oxygen from the air channel permeates the porous cathode and is reduced to oxygen ions (O2−). The oxygen ion produced at the cathode-electrolyte interface then flows to the anode-electrolyte interface via the ion-conducting electrolyte.

Kahraman Hüseyin, and Yasin Akın (2024) [26] examined the membrane and bipolar plate, which are the essential elements of polymer electrolytic membrane/proton interchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The functions of the components have been elucidated in detail. The prevalent materials and their properties for membranes and bipolar plates utilized in PEMFC have been examined. This study meticulously examined membranes and bipolar plates, focusing on production methods, preferred materials, and attachments. Recent investigations concerning membrane and bipolar plates have been presented, accompanied by a thorough review of existing literature. Recent studies on the specified components have been conducted to acquire the necessary properties for fuel cell operation, leading to conclusions that may illuminate commercial production.

Shah MAK Yousaf, (2023) [27] expressed the growth of the humanoid population and the improved speed of life for many individuals are the main factors driving the shift towards renewable energy solutions, aside from the reliance on fossil fuel combustion. Fuel cells play a crucial role in the energy transition, providing efficient as well as ecologically sustainable energy conversion through a range of production of energy technologies. Solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) represent the most economical and feasible choice for applications in industry. Nonetheless, the substantial expense restricts its market viability because of the increased temperature of operation (> 750°C) of the electrolytic materials. Low temperatures solid-oxide fuel cell systems (SOFCs) functioning below 500°C demonstrate economic viability and potential for commercialization; however, the scarcity of suitable electrolyte materials impedes their advancement. This study presented improvements in new useful semiconductor-ionic materials (SIM) and semiconductor membranes (SM) that may enable new research and development pathways for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). They examined the complex characteristics of SM/SIM materials as well as the microscopic electrochemical phenomena of SIMs to propose new concepts and methodologies for enhancing SOFCs. A new concept of a nano-solid oxide fuel cell is introduced, which replaces the usual electrolysis layer with a solid ionic membrane (SIM) or solid membrane (SM), distinguishing it from traditional SOFCs.

Musa Maryam Taufiq, et al. (2022) [28] said the growth of the humanoid populace and enhanced existing circumstances for a significant segment of the populace are the principal drivers of the adoption of maintainable energy manufacturing skills, apart from fossil petroleum burning. Fuel cells significantly contribute to vigor change by providing effectual then spotless energy adaptation across diverse energy machineries. “Solid oxide fuel cells” represent the greatest economical and feasible other aimed at engineering applications. Nevertheless, the prohibitive expense restricts its commercialization owing to the elevated working temperature “(> 750°C)” of the electrolyte materials. Consequently, low-temperature rock-hard oxide fuel cells “(SOFCs)” working under 500°C are economically viable and appealing for commercialization; however, the scarcity of suitable electrolyte materials impedes their advancement. The author aimed to showcase advancements in novel functional semiconductor-ionic materials “(SIM)” and semiconducting material sheaths “(SM)” that could facilitate new avenues for the research and development of solid oxide fuel cells. Additionally, they examine the intricate properties of “SM/SIM” resources than the nanoscale electrochemical phenomena of SIMs to introduce novel concepts and methodologies for the advancement of “SOFCs”. A novel concept of a “nano-SOFC” that substitutes the conventional electrolyte coating with a “SIM or SM” distinguishing it from traditional “SOFCs” is introduced.

Jawad Noor H., et al. (2022) [29] evaluated the developments of fuel cells that have garnered increased interest due to their capability to utilize non-precious metals as catalysts. This advancement contributes to a reduction in the charge of each kW of control generated by petroleum cell devices to a certain degree. In recent years, the primary obstacle to the advancement of fuel cells has been the availability of extremely “conductive anion-exchange membranes”. Conversely, advancements indicate that newly developed “anion-exchange membranes” have achieved elevated conductivity levels, resulting in an optimal configuration of the cell. At present, a growing body of research has detailed the presentation outcomes of petroleum cells. The majority of the works detailing cell presentation are based on “hydrogen–anion exchange” membrane fuel cell technology (AEMFCs). However, an increasing quantity of pieces of training has additionally documented the use of alternative fuels, including alcohols, non-alcoholic “carbon-based fuels, and nitrogen-based fuels”. This study is an overview of the various types, performance metrics, employed membranes, and working parameters of anion exchange membranes used in fuel cells.

Banerjee Aritro, et al. (2022) [30] said microbial fuel cells are a new wastewater treatment technology that directly produces energy from the carbon-based substance in the aquatic by using the metabolism of microorganisms. The three primary parts of an MFC are the “anode, cathode, and proton exchange membrane”. Their working principle is identical to that of a hydrogen fuel cell. Both anode and cathode chambers are kept apart by a membrane, which maintains the anaerobic and aerobic environments in each chamber, correspondingly. This evaluation paper addresses the latest advancements in obtaining robust, sustainable, and affordable membranes and outlines the most recent developments in membrane materials that are particularly suited for MFC. In MFC, the most common commercially available membranes are “Nafion 117, Flemion, and Hyflon”. The utilization of “non-fluorinated polymeric membrane materials”, such as sulfonated silicon dioxide (S-SiO2), demonstrated encouraging results and demonstrated a viable substitute for Nafion 117 in “sulfonated polystyrene ethylene butylene polystyrene (SSEBS)”, sulfonated polyether ether ketone (SPEEK), and graphene oxide sulfonated polyether ketone (GO/SPEEK) membranes. Choosing an appropriate membrane for a scalable MFC system presents numerous obstacles before the technology can be commercially and technically feasible.

Liu, Qingshan, et al. (2022) [31] expressed the water management of proton exchange membrane fuel cells, introducing the most recent findings and advancements in membrane electrode gathering mechanisms and summarizing the factors influencing their properties. MEA made up of carbon fiber paper, a microporous layer, a catalyst layer, and a “proton exchange membrane”, is the main component of the “PEMFC”. The performance of the petroleum cell (PC) is greatly influenced by the characteristics of each element, and certain properties will interact strongly with one another. As a result, the characteristics of each component and how they interact determine the FC performance. Although there isn't a summary of this aspect yet, it serves as the foundation for the enterprise of high-performance FCs by elucidating the influence mechanism of different properties and their interactions on the FC performance. To fully understand the influence mechanism of a particular property, one must first sort and combine the conclusions regarding a similar factor or property that has been strained from all literature. It allows us to know intuitively which literature has been studied and arrive at the conclusions. This study discusses and forecasts the upcoming research directions and advances predictions of individual factors based on the growth and accomplishments of each component in certain areas.

Malik Vansh, et al. (2021) [32] examined the excessive use of fossil fuels for energy has resulted in an ever-increasing carbon footprint, which has alarmingly altered environmental conditions. The Hydrogen Interchange Membranes (PEM) fuel cells and the Solid Hydroxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) are two well-known fuel cells that are compared in this review along with recent developments in fuel cell technology. The review outlined the specific benefits and drawbacks of the two fuel cells that were discussed. Tabulated data containing key findings from PEMFC technology and earlier experimental studies of SOFC are presented for discussion. Finally, a thorough conclusion has been reached, and potential future developments are also mentioned.

Khoo Kuan Shiong, et al. (2021) [33] assessed known also as electrochemical generators, hydrogen fuel cells (FCs) are chemically powered devices that can directly transform chemical power into electrical energy. One of the most interesting fuel cell systems to be widely produced in recent years has a “proton-exchange membrane fuel cell”. Traditional PEMFC's capability to operate at greater temperatures is severely constrained by the electrolyte membrane's poor conductivity. In high-temperature PEMFCs (HT-PEMFCs), the use of ionic liquids (ILs), which are generally considered to be a more environmentally friendly solvent substitute than conventional thinners, in the proton exchange membrane's electrolyte exhibits inordinate promise. The most recent developments in the use of ILs as an electrolytic electrolyte in “PEMFCs” are discussed in this review. Additionally, there are numerous advantages to electrolyte membranes made of ILs and polybenzimidazole (PBI), including increased proton conductivity, enhanced mechanical qualities, and better thermal stability. The study looked into the greatest recent progressions and continuing problems in the field of inorganic liquid (IL) investigation, including material and electrolyte selection, system fabrication methods, IL synthesis, and experimental techniques. Also covered are the assessment of ILs' life cycle analysis, commercialization, and environmental friendliness. As a result, this review advances interest among a larger audience and offers material scientists new perspectives, encouraging the application of ILs to address energy-related issues.

Tellez-Cruz Miriam M., et al. (2021) [34] said that many researchers are very interested in the investigation of the electrochemical substance conversion of carbon oxides and renewable energy into biochemical fuels. Via a bolted technical cycle of carbon in which organic fuels, like H, are stored and then converted back into energy through electrochemical processes in fuel cells, this process primarily aims to mitigate the global energy crisis. When building masses of “proton exchange membrane fuel cells” to operate at low and modest temperatures, the technical community concentrates its efforts on developing “high-performance polymeric membranes” along with nanotechnology with significant catalytic action as well as equilibrium decrease the platinum cluster metallic applied as a cathode. It is crucial to design novel conductive membranes and nanoparticles whose shape influences their catalytic capabilities. For catalysis applications, various nanoparticle morphologies such as “cubes, octahedrons, icosahedrons, bipyramids, plates, and polyhedrons” are extensively researched. Recent developments regarding the elevated catalytic activity have concentrated on stabilizing agents and how they might affect the synthesis of nanomaterials to cause modifications in NP morphology.

Alaswad Abed, et al. (2020) [35] expressed that the most recent developments in fuel cell technology for both stationary and portable fuel cell submissions, as well as their incorporation into the motorized sector, are critically assessed in this review. The main benefits of applications for fuel cells are their rapid start-up time, high efficiency, lack of harmful releases into the environment, and decent modularity. Notwithstanding the benefits of fuel cells, one major barrier to their widespread commercialization is still their high cost. As a result, this review provided comprehensive information about the ideal operating parameters that result in the highest fuel cell performance. Future research on robust fuel cell geometry designs—which determine cell losses—as well as material characterization for the different parts of the cell are recommended by the paper. When done correctly, this will facilitate a complete decrease in the cell's cost, which will ultimately lower the system's overall cost. Public education is necessary because approximately persons have doubts about the safety of fuel cell skills, even contempt the advancements completed by the fuel cell investigative community. If a risk assessment is thoroughly documented and taken into account in subsequent research endeavors, this obstacle can be surmounted.

Babu Attuluri R, et al. (2018) [36] expressed the presentation of proton-exchanging membrane fuel cells, which are used in fuel cell vehicles, this study focused on their parametric analysis. In this study, a membrane electrode assembly is constructed at a loading of 40% Pt/C, and various parameters such as “cell temperature, hydrogen and oxygen” movement rates, and both “anode and cathode” humidification temperatures are experimented with. The findings indicated that while other parameters only cause variation in the concentration and activation polarization regions, cell temperature has a substantial impact on the PEMFC's performance. As a workable model for a greater-power vehicle, a fuel cell stack-powered prototype FCV is being developed. It can run continuously without the essential aimed at an outside control source. The author investigated the vehicle's performance through a battery of load tests.

Diesendruck Charles E. and Dario R. Dekel, (2018) [37] Expressed an Anion exchange membrane fuel cell technologies have the potential to revolutionize energy delivery and storage, but their commercial development is impeded by the anion exchange membranes' chemical breakdown while in use. As the “hydro oxide anions move from the cathode to the anode” they attack the polymer membranes' positively electric functional groups, neutralizing them and preventing them from conducting an anion. To tackle this issue, several novel quaternary ammonium salts have been put forth in recent years; however, although they function well in ex-situ chemical investigations, their efficacy in actual fuel cell research is severely constrained. The inherent chemical stability of anion-carrying ionomeric materials is determined by cation chemistry; however, it has been demonstrated recently that the fuel cell's operating hydration level has a major impact on chemical degradation. The road to overcoming the obstacle and ultimately developing and demonstrating extremely stable AEMFC devices will be made easier by having a thorough understanding of the concepts controlling the breakdown of chemicals below the fuel cell process and its crucial association with the amount of water in the working “fuel cell electrodes”.

Luo Yueqi, and Kui Jiao (2018) [38] studied the starting of proton exchange membranes (PEM) fuel cells from below-freezing temperatures is referred to in this review as a "cold start." Some of the remaining obstacles to the commercial use of PEM fuel cell technology in carriage, stationary, auxiliary, and portable systems are issues that arise during the cold start. Basic research on transport phenomena is essential for comprehending cold start mechanisms and provides the best answers for resolving cold start problems. This review discussed experimental studies that highlight component damages during a cold start, water and ice visualization, and output performance degradation. Additionally covered are analytical, mathematical, and microscopic models along with their outcomes. A focus is placed on transport phenomena that are associated with cold starts, such as gas diffusion layers, catalyst layers, microporous layers, supercooling, and water transport in the membrane. The methods used to maximize cold-start processes for enhanced performance are also emphasized. The component material designs, cell and stack structures, and startup mode/load controls are some of the strategies. It is demonstrated that every successful mitigation strategy for cold-start issues stems from a fundamental comprehension of the transport mechanisms that occur during a cold-start.

Dekel Dario R. (2018) [39] evaluated the use of non-precious metallic substances in “anion-exchange membrane fuel cells” which has drawn more attention lately because it theoretically lowers the price of a kilowatt of power in fuel cell devices. ‘Anion exchange membranes” that are highly conductive were the primary obstacle to the development of AEMFCs until recently. Nevertheless, advancements in this area over the last ten years indicate that recently created AEMs have already attained high conductivity levels, resulting in satisfactory cell performance. AEMFC performance results have been reported in an increasing number of research studies in recent years. Over the past three years, new performance records have been set. Though a cumulative quantity of studies has reported the usage of fuels other than ‘hydrogen, such as alcohols, non-alcohol C-based fuels’, and “N-based fuels”, the majority of the works broadcasting cell efficiency is based on “hydrogen-AEMFCs”. The cell functioning and constancy of “AEMFCs” over the years since the initial reports in the first decade of the 2000s are reviewed in this article.

Gubler Lorenz et al. (2018) [40 said that in place of perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acid (PFSA) membranes, a variety of “hydrocarbon-based ionomer membranes” have been suggested for use in fuel cells. Currently, there is a lack of complete resolution regarding the biochemical and Ionomer membranes in this class are mechanically degradable and their mixture, particularly in automotive operating conditions. Here, highlight the main mechanisms by which hydrocarbon-based fuel cell membranes deteriorate and point out the advancements that must be made to counteract “radical-induced membrane degradation” and the mechanical drawbacks of this kind of ionomers to make them competitive with and potentially even replace PFSA membranes.

Jiang Hongliang, et al. (2017) [41] expressed those vehicles powered by fuel cells are the cleanest and most efficient option. Particularly attractive for use in automobiles are proton-exchanged “membrane fuel cells”, which have a low operating temperature and a fast startup time. A great deal of work has gone into improving the efficiency of PEMFCs over the last decade. This includes making them more energy efficient, increasing their mass and volume power density, and making them better at starting up at low temperatures. Several famous car companies introduced fuel-cell vehicles to consumers in 2014. On the other hand, the high price and short lifespan of “PEMFC” classifications are still the main problems to the broad mechanization of this technology. The price and lifespan of PEMFCs are heavily influenced by their main components and materials. This review compiled and examined the scientific advancement of important materials and parts related to PEMFCs, such as the bipolar plate, gas diffusion layer, membrane, and catalytic layer. Furthermore, processing technologies with a high degree of durability are introduced. The review was completed with the author's personal views on potential future research directions in this area.

Wang Cheng, et al. (2016) [42] evaluated the most efficient and cleanest power source for cars as fuel cells. Because of their quick startup and low operating temperature, “protons exchange membrane fuel cells” in particular are the most promising option for automotive requests. The performance of “PEMFCs”, including energy efficacy, volumetric and form control density, and low-temperature setup capability, has significantly improved over the past ten years thanks to massive global research efforts. In 2014, several well-known automakers released “fuel cell-powered vehicles” onto the market. However, the primary barriers to the widespread industrialization of this technology remain the PEMFC systems' high cost and low durability. The primary materials and parts of PEMFCs have a significant impact on both their price and longevity. The technical development of important PEMFC-related materials and parts, including the membrane, catalytic “layer, gas diffusion layer, and bipolar plate” has been compiled and examined in this review.

Afsahi Foroughazam, et al. (2016) [43] investigated the effect of Nafion ionomer gratified on the proton exchange membrane fuel cell efficiency using experimental measurement and computational modeling. The fuel cell uses homemade anodized and cathodic electrodes made from a novel metal-organic framework derived from a Pt-based electrocatalyst. The purpose of the variable compassion analysis was to classify the model's most important parameters. Using the pertinent experimental data, the parameters were adjusted for the different fuel cell designs that were investigated in this work. The effect of the "Nafion content in the catalyst" layer of specially made electrodes was then examined using the calibrated model. The Nafion content in the catalyst layer of customized electrodes was varied from 10 to 50 weight percent to experimentally investigate the qualitative trend predicted by this model. The amount of Nafion had little effect on the performance of the handmade electrodes at the anode of a PEM fuel cell. The amount of Nafion in the cathodic manufactured electrode had a greater impact on the "PEM fuel cell's" performance.

Thiam H. S., et al. (2011) [44] said that fuel cells will soon be used to generate low- to emissions-free power for use in electric vehicles and portable technology. Considerable progress has been achieved with the fabrication of fuel cellular membranes using nanotechnology, enabling the creation of smaller fuel cells and high-quality solid electrolytes. It has been established that nanostructures are essential for enhancing fuel cell membrane performance. This study focused on the enhancement of fuel cell membranes through the use of these nanostructures and gives an overview of the development and research of nanostructured membranes for various fuel cell applications. This review also included theoretical studies that have been conducted using fuel cell membrane simulation and modeling at the molecular level. Additional concerns about the limits of technology, difficulties in research, and upcoming trends are also examined.

Mekhilef Saad, et al. (2012) [45] expressed that fuel cells produce electricity and heat through an electrochemical reaction that occurs between “oxygen and hydrogen”, subsequent in the foundation of water. Fuel cell technology presents a compelling solution for delivering energy to rural regions lacking access to the electrical grid or facing significant expenses related to the wiring and transmission of electricity. Furthermore, systems that have critical secure electrical energy needs, like uninterruptible electrical supplies, power generation stations, and distributed systems, can utilize fuel cells as their energy source. This review presented a comparative analysis of fundamental design, operational principles, applications, benefits, and drawbacks of different technologies utilized in fuel cells. The techno-economic characteristics of fuel cell hydrogen vehicles are compared with those of vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICEV). The findings demonstrate that fuel cell systems feature a straightforward design, exceptional reliability, silent process, high competence, and reduced ecological impact.

Wee Jung-Ho. (2007) [46] said that the PEMFCs have recently progressed beyond the testing or protest point and have partly attained commercialization, owing to significant global research endeavors. Notwithstanding the current promising advancements and feasible prospects of “PEMFCs”, numerous challenges persist that must be addressed before “PEMFCs” can effectively and economically replace various conventional energy systems. The most crucial resources for the commercialization of “PEMFC” determination are the technical data and insights derived from actual “PEMFC” application testing, amidst numerous promising research initiatives aimed at addressing these challenges. This paper presents and examines the ongoing challenges and recent research regarding the application testing of “PEMFC” in real-world systems, including transport, built-up energy production, and portable computing devices. This study delineated and encapsulates the comparative prospects and competitive dynamics of “PEMFCs” in these domains.