% This file was created with Citavi 6.14.4.0

@proceedings{.1967,
 year = {1967},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical},
 number = {13}
}


@proceedings{.1971,
 year = {1971},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 number = {16}
}


@proceedings{.1973,
 year = {1973},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 number = {18}
}


@proceedings{.1973b,
 year = {1973},
 title = {Proceedings of the 11 International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases}
}


@proceedings{.1974,
 year = {1974},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 number = {19}
}


@proceedings{.1975,
 year = {1975},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical}
}


@proceedings{.1975b,
 year = {1975},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 number = {20}
}


@proceedings{.1990,
 year = {1990},
 title = {Review of Scientific Instruments : Rev. Sci. Instrum},
 volume = {61},
 isbn = {0034-6748}
}


@proceedings{.1990b,
 year = {1990},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society}
}


@proceedings{.1990c,
 year = {1990},
 title = {IEEE Conference Record-Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.1990d,
 year = {1990},
 title = {Vision-21, Space Travel for the Next Millennium: Proceedings of a Symposium Held at the NASA Lewis}
}


@proceedings{.1991,
 year = {1991},
 title = {1991 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science}
}


@proceedings{.1991b,
 year = {1991},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {217},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.1991c,
 abstract = {Volume 20, 1991 - Issue 4P2: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems. Monterey, California, June 16-21, 1991},
 year = {1991},
 title = {Fusion Technology},
 volume = {20},
 publisher = {{Taylor {\&} Francis}},
 isbn = {0748-1896}
}


@proceedings{.1991d,
 year = {1991},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 volume = {36},
 number = {36}
}


@proceedings{.1992,
 year = {1992},
 title = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. 1992 IEEE International Conference on Plasma}
}


@proceedings{.1992b,
 year = {1992},
 title = {Review of Scientific Instruments : Rev. Sci. Instrum},
 volume = {63},
 isbn = {0034-6748}
}


@proceedings{.1992c,
 year = {1992},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 volume = {37},
 number = {37}
}


@proceedings{.1992d,
 year = {1992},
 title = {Proceedings of the International Sherwood Fusion Theory Conference}
}


@proceedings{.1993,
 year = {1993},
 title = {15th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering},
 volume = {1}
}


@proceedings{.1993b,
 year = {1993},
 title = {Vision 21: Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace}
}


@proceedings{.1993c,
 year = {1993},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 number = {271}
}


@proceedings{.1993d,
 year = {1993},
 title = {International Conference on Plasma Sciences (ICOPS)},
 isbn = {0730-9244}
}


@proceedings{.1993e,
 year = {1993},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 number = {299}
}


@proceedings{.1993f,
 year = {1993},
 title = {Proceedings of the 1993 International Sherwood Fusion Theory Conference}
}


@proceedings{.1993g,
 year = {1993},
 title = {Proceedings of the 29th AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit}
}


@proceedings{.1993h,
 year = {1993},
 title = {Proceedings of the 2nd Wisconsin Symposium on Helium-3 and Fusion Power}
}


@proceedings{.1993i,
 year = {1993},
 title = {Proceedings of the 44th International Astronautical Congress}
}


@proceedings{.1993j,
 year = {1993},
 title = {Proceedings of the 5th International Aerospace Planes and Hypersonics Technologies Conference}
}


@proceedings{.1994,
 year = {1994},
 title = {IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science}
}


@proceedings{.1994b,
 year = {1994},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 number = {39}
}


@proceedings{.1994c,
 year = {1994},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {301},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.1994d,
 year = {1994},
 title = {Nondestructive Assay and Nondestructive Examination Waste Characterization Conference}
}


@proceedings{.1994e,
 year = {1994},
 title = {Neutron Capture Therapy for Cancer: Proc. 6th International Symposium},
 publisher = {{New York: Plenum}}
}


@proceedings{.1994f,
 year = {1994},
 title = {Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Accelerator-Based Neutron Sources for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy}
}


@proceedings{.1995,
 year = {1995},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {331},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.1995b,
 year = {1995},
 title = {Proceedings of the 1995 10th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference. Part 1 (of 2)}
}


@proceedings{.1995c,
 year = {1995},
 title = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/conhome/3790/proceeding},
 number = {2}
}


@proceedings{.1995d,
 year = {1995},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {322},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.1995e,
 year = {1995},
 title = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 isbn = {0730-9244}
}


@proceedings{.1995f,
 year = {1995},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 volume = {40},
 number = {40}
}


@proceedings{.1995g,
 year = {1995},
 title = {Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases},
 url = {https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:27052420},
 number = {4}
}


@proceedings{.1995h,
 year = {1995},
 title = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 volume = {72},
 number = {72}
}


@proceedings{.1996,
 year = {1996},
 title = {Proceedings of 17th International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 volume = {2},
 number = {2}
}


@proceedings{.1996b,
 year = {1996},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 edition = {1},
 volume = {361},
 publisher = {{AIP Publishing LLC}}
}


@proceedings{.1996c,
 year = {1996},
 title = {Proceedings of the ANS Topical Meeting on Industrial Radiation and Radioisotope Measurement Applications}
}


@proceedings{.1997,
 year = {1997},
 title = {17th IEEE/NPSS Symposium Fusion Engineering},
 number = {2}
}


@proceedings{.1997b,
 year = {1997},
 title = {APS Annual Gaseous Electronics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.1997c,
 year = {1997},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.1997d,
 year = {1997},
 title = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. 1997 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 isbn = {0730-9244}
}


@proceedings{.1997e,
 year = {1997},
 title = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 number = {77}
}


@proceedings{.1998,
 year = {1998},
 title = {1998 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science}
}


@proceedings{.1998b,
 year = {1998},
 title = {29th AIAA, Plasmadynamics and Lasers Conference}
}


@proceedings{.1998c,
 year = {1998},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 volume = {420},
 number = {420}
}


@proceedings{.1998d,
 year = {1998},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.1998e,
 year = {1998},
 title = {Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on the Numerical Simulation of Plasmas},
 url = {https://www.physics.ucla.edu/icnsp/program.htm}
}


@proceedings{.1999,
 year = {1999},
 title = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings}
}


@proceedings{.1999b,
 year = {1999},
 title = {35th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit}
}


@proceedings{.1999c,
 year = {1999},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 volume = {458},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.1999d,
 year = {1999},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 number = {475}
}


@proceedings{.1999e,
 year = {1999},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 volume = {44},
 number = {44}
}


@proceedings{.1999f,
 year = {1999},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings}
}


@proceedings{.2000,
 year = {2000},
 title = {IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS)},
 url = {https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/conhome/6891/proceeding},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.2000}
}


@proceedings{.2000b,
 year = {2000},
 title = {11th Int. Toko Conf.},
 publisher = {{National Institute for Fusion Science}}
}


@proceedings{.2000c,
 year = {2000},
 title = {SOURCE2000}
}


@proceedings{.2000d,
 year = {2000},
 title = {Space 2000: the Seventh International Conference and Exposition on Engineering, Construction, Operations and Business in Space}
}


@proceedings{.2000e,
 year = {2000},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.2000f,
 year = {2000},
 title = {36th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit}
}


@proceedings{.2000g,
 year = {2000},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {504},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.2000h,
 year = {2000},
 title = {Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ICONE 8}
}


@proceedings{.2000i,
 year = {2000},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings}
}


@proceedings{.2001,
 year = {2001},
 title = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. PPPS-2001 Pulsed Power Plasma Science 2001. 28th IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science and 13th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference (Cat. No.01CH37}
}


@proceedings{.2001b,
 year = {2001},
 title = {Workshop on Extremely High Energy Density Plasmas and Their Diagnostics}
}


@proceedings{.2001c,
 year = {2001},
 title = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.2001d,
 year = {2001},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings}
}


@proceedings{.2002,
 year = {2002},
 title = {10th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering (ICONE 10)},
 number = {2}
}


@proceedings{.2002b,
 year = {2002},
 title = {The 32nd International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS), 2002}
}


@proceedings{.2002c,
 year = {2002},
 title = {AIP Conf. Proc.},
 volume = {608},
 number = {608}
}


@proceedings{.2002d,
 year = {2002},
 title = {ANS Annual Meetings},
 number = {9}
}


@proceedings{.2002e,
 year = {2002},
 title = {Proceedings of the 19th IEEE/IPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. 19th SOFE},
 address = {Atlantic City, NJ, USA},
 publisher = {IEEE}
}


@proceedings{.2003,
 year = {2003},
 title = {39th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 publisher = {{American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-098-7},
 series = {Joint Propulsion Conferences}
}


@proceedings{.2003b,
 year = {2003},
 title = {26th International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases (ICPIG)}
}


@proceedings{.2003c,
 year = {2003},
 title = {The 30th International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS), 2003}
}


@proceedings{.2003d,
 year = {2003},
 title = {Proceeding of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering}
}


@proceedings{.2003e,
 year = {2003},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {654},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.2003f,
 year = {2003},
 title = {International Meeting on Nuclear Applications of Accelerator Technology: Accelerator Application in a Nuclear Renaissance}
}


@proceedings{.2003g,
 year = {2003},
 title = {NASA/MSFC/JPL/UAH 14h Annual Advanced Space Propulsion Workshop(ASPW 2003)}
}


@proceedings{.2003h,
 year = {2003},
 title = {Proceedings of the 20th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering, 2003}
}


@proceedings{.2004,
 year = {2004},
 title = {14th Pacific Basin Nuclear Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2004b,
 year = {2004},
 title = {2004 International Congress on Advances in Nuclear Power Plants, ICAPP'04}
}


@proceedings{.2004c,
 year = {2004},
 title = {The 31st IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science, ICOPS2004}
}


@proceedings{.2004d,
 year = {2004},
 title = {Space Technology and Applications International Forum-STAIF 2004}
}


@proceedings{.2004e,
 year = {2004},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {699},
 isbn = {0094-243X}
}


@proceedings{.2004f,
 year = {2004},
 title = {APS Annual Gaseous Electronics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.2004g,
 year = {2004},
 title = {APS April Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.2004h,
 year = {2004},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts}
}


@proceedings{.2004i,
 year = {2004},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan}
}


@proceedings{.2005,
 year = {2005},
 title = {American Nuclear Society Embedded Topical Meeting - 2005 Space Nuclear Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2005b,
 year = {2005},
 title = {41st AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit},
 publisher = {{American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}},
 series = {Joint Propulsion Conferences}
}


@proceedings{.2005c,
 year = {2005},
 title = {27th International Conference on Free Electron Lasers}
}


@proceedings{.2005d,
 year = {2005},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan}
}


@proceedings{.2005e,
 year = {2005},
 title = {Proceedings of the 21st IEEE/NPS Symposium on Fusion Engineering SOFE 05}
}


@proceedings{.2005f,
 year = {2005},
 title = {Proceedings of the Space Technology and Applications International Forum (STAIF 2005)}
}


@proceedings{.2006,
 year = {2006},
 title = {42nd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-038-3}
}


@proceedings{.2006b,
 year = {2006},
 title = {2006 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record},
 number = {6},
 publisher = {IEEE}
}


@proceedings{.2006c,
 year = {2006},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan}
}


@proceedings{.2006d,
 year = {2006},
 title = {Proceedings of the XXIInd International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum}
}


@proceedings{.2006e,
 year = {2006},
 title = {The 33rd IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS), 2006},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.2006.1706959}
}


@proceedings{.2006f,
 year = {2006},
 title = {3rd Int. Symp. on Sustainable Energy System}
}


@proceedings{.2006g,
 year = {2006},
 title = {57th International Astronautical Congress}
}


@proceedings{.2006h,
 year = {2006},
 title = {AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {813}
}


@proceedings{.2007,
 year = {2007},
 title = {5th International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2007b,
 year = {2007},
 title = {8th International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Applications and Utilization of Accelerators, ACCAPP'07}
}


@proceedings{.2007c,
 year = {2007},
 title = {Space Nuclear Conference 2007 - Embedded Topical Meeting, SNC'07}
}


@proceedings{.2007d,
 year = {2007},
 title = {43rd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit}
}


@proceedings{.2007e,
 year = {2007},
 title = {Proceedings of the 22nd IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering (SOFE 2007)}
}


@proceedings{.2008,
 year = {2008},
 title = {2008 IEEE Energy 2030 Conference, ENERGY 2008}
}


@proceedings{.2008b,
 year = {2008},
 title = {44th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit}
}


@proceedings{.2008c,
 year = {2008},
 title = {KNS Spring Meeting},
 url = {http://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:39108982}
}


@proceedings{.2008d,
 year = {2008},
 title = {2007 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record}
}


@proceedings{.2008e,
 year = {2008},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan}
}


@proceedings{.2009,
 year = {2009},
 title = {2009 IEEE 36th International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS)},
 isbn = {978-1-4244-2617-1}
}


@proceedings{.2009b,
 year = {2009},
 title = {Space, Propulsion and Energy Sciences International Forum, SPESIF 2009}
}


@proceedings{.2009c,
 year = {2009},
 title = {2009 23rd IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering (SOFE 2009)}
}


@proceedings{.2009d,
 year = {2009},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 number = {1099}
}


@proceedings{.2009e,
 year = {2009},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan}
}


@proceedings{.2009f,
 year = {2009},
 title = {International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Research Applications and Utilization of Accelerators}
}


@proceedings{.2009g,
 year = {2009},
 title = {PPC2009 - 17th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2010,
 year = {2010},
 title = {2010 ANS Annual Meeting and Embedded Topical Meeting: Isotopes for Medicine and Industry}
}


@proceedings{.2010b,
 year = {2010},
 title = {2010 IEEE International Power Modulator and High Voltage Conference, IPMHVC 2010}
}


@proceedings{.2010c,
 year = {2010},
 title = {8th Annual International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-156-4}
}


@proceedings{.2010d,
 year = {2010},
 title = {10th IEEE International Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security, HST 2010}
}


@proceedings{.2010e,
 year = {2010},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan}
}


@proceedings{.2011,
 year = {2011},
 title = {2011 ANS Annual Winter Meeting and Embedded Topical Meetings: 1st ANS SMR 2011 Conference and Young Professionals Congress 2011}
}


@proceedings{.2011b,
 year = {2011},
 title = {32nd International Electric Propulsion Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2011c,
 year = {2011},
 title = {Nuclear and Emerging Technologies for Space 2011, NETS-2011}
}


@proceedings{.2011d,
 year = {2011},
 title = {Joint Technical Meeting on Plasma Science and Technology and Pulsed Power Technology}
}


@proceedings{.2011e,
 year = {2011},
 title = {2011 IEEE/NPSS 24th Symposium on Fusion Engineering, SOFE 2011}
}


@proceedings{.2011f,
 year = {2011},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 publisher = {J-STAGE}
}


@proceedings{.2012,
 year = {2012},
 title = {48th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit 2012}
}


@proceedings{.2012b,
 year = {2012},
 title = {Nuclear {\&} Emerging Technologies for Space (NETS 2012)}
}


@proceedings{.2012c,
 year = {2012},
 title = {63rd International Astronautical Congress (IAC)}
}


@proceedings{.2012d,
 year = {2012},
 title = {2012 COMSOL Conference in Boston}
}


@proceedings{.2012e,
 year = {2012},
 title = {AIAA SPACE 2012 Conference {\&} Exposition},
 publisher = {{American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}},
 series = {AIAA SPACE Forum}
}


@proceedings{.2012f,
 year = {2012},
 title = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 number = {64}
}


@proceedings{.2012g,
 year = {2012},
 title = {19th Advanced Space Propulsion Workshop (ASPW2012)}
}


@proceedings{.2012h,
 year = {2012},
 title = {2012 IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security (HST)}
}


@proceedings{.2012i,
 year = {2012},
 title = {2012 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference Record (NSS/MIC)}
}


@proceedings{.2012j,
 year = {2012},
 title = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan}
}


@proceedings{.2013,
 year = {2013},
 title = {33rd International Electric Propulsion Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2013b,
 year = {2013},
 title = {49th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-222-6}
}


@proceedings{.2013c,
 year = {2013},
 title = {Symposium on ``Physics and Application of Plasmas Based on Pulsed Power Technology''}
}


@proceedings{.2013d,
 year = {2013},
 title = {Nuclear and Emerging Technologies for Space, NETS 2013}
}


@proceedings{.2013e,
 year = {2013},
 title = {Proceedings of the 25th Symposium on Fusion Engineering, SOFE 2013},
 publisher = {IEEE}
}


@proceedings{.2014,
 year = {2014},
 title = {50th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and exhibit},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-303-2}
}


@proceedings{.2014b,
 year = {2014},
 title = {5th Russian German Conference on Electric Propulsion}
}


@proceedings{.2014c,
 year = {2014},
 title = {Plasma2014}
}


@proceedings{.2014d,
 year = {2014},
 title = {Space Propulsion Conference 2014}
}


@proceedings{.2015,
 year = {2015},
 title = {34th International Electric Propulsion Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2015b,
 year = {2015},
 title = {51st AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-321-6}
}


@proceedings{.2015c,
 year = {2015},
 title = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 volume = {653},
 publisher = {{Institute of Physics Publishing}}
}


@proceedings{.2015d,
 year = {2015},
 title = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 number = {113},
 publisher = {{American Nuclear Society}}
}


@proceedings{.2015e,
 year = {2015},
 title = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 volume = {591},
 publisher = {{IOP Publishing Ltd}}
}


@proceedings{.2016,
 year = {2016},
 title = {52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2016b,
 year = {2016},
 title = {Space Propulsion 2016}
}


@proceedings{.2016c,
 year = {2016},
 title = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 number = {774}
}


@proceedings{.2017,
 year = {2017},
 title = {35th International Electric Propulsion Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2017b,
 year = {2017},
 title = {53rd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-511-1}
}


@proceedings{.2017c,
 year = {2017},
 title = {2017 Transactions of the American Nuclear Society, ANS 2017}
}


@proceedings{.2017d,
 year = {2017},
 title = {Symposium of ``Recent Developments of Pulsed Power Technology and Plasma Application Research''}
}


@proceedings{.2017e,
 year = {2017},
 title = {Symposium on {\grqq}Pulsed Power and High-Density Plasma and its Applications{\textquotedbl}}
}


@proceedings{.2018,
 year = {2018},
 title = {54th AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, 2018},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-570-8}
}


@proceedings{.2018b,
 year = {2018},
 title = {69th International Astronautical Congress}
}


@proceedings{.2018c,
 year = {2018},
 title = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 volume = {946}
}


@proceedings{.2018d,
 year = {2018},
 title = {2018 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference Proceedings (NSS/MIC)}
}


@proceedings{.2019,
 year = {2019},
 title = {36th International Electric Propulsion Conference}
}


@proceedings{.2019b,
 year = {2019},
 title = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 number = {1147}
}


@proceedings{.2019c,
 year = {2019},
 title = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 number = {1147}
}


@proceedings{.2019d,
 year = {2019},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 number = {2160},
 publisher = {AIP}
}


@proceedings{.2019e,
 year = {2019},
 title = {ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Proceedings (IMECE)}
}


@proceedings{.2019f,
 year = {2019},
 title = {46th European Physical Society Conference on Plasma Physics (EPS 2019)}
}


@proceedings{.2020,
 year = {2020},
 title = {2020 International Conference on Physics of Reactors: Transition to a Scalable Nuclear Future, PHYSOR 2020}
}


@proceedings{.2020b,
 year = {2020},
 title = {Accelerating Space Commerce, Exploration, and New Discovery Conference, ASCEND 2020}
}


@proceedings{.2021,
 year = {2021},
 title = {AIAA Propulsion and Energy Forum, 2021}
}


@proceedings{.2021b,
 year = {2021},
 title = {Space Propulsion Conference 2020+1}
}


@proceedings{.2021c,
 year = {2021},
 title = {Symposium on {\textquotedbl}Frontier of Advanced Pulsed Power Technology and its Application to Plasma and Particle Beam{\textquotedbl}}
}


@proceedings{.2021d,
 year = {2021},
 title = {Applied Industrial Spectroscopy, AIS 2021 - Part of Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress 2021},
 publisher = {{Optica Publishing Group (formerly OSA)}}
}


@proceedings{.2022,
 year = {2022},
 title = {31st International Conference Nuclear Energy for New Europe, NENE2022}
}


@proceedings{.2022b,
 year = {2022},
 title = {37th International Electric Propulsion Conference}
}


@article{10.1063/5.0134631,
 abstract = {Trapping ions, such as deuterium and tritium, inside a potential well to generate neutrons is a well-established technology through electric and magnetic fields via the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) and the tokamak, respectively. In the IECF, the straightforward configuration is a concentric cathode connected to a negative bias, surrounded by a grounded anode that serves as a vacuum vessel. Theoretically, neutrons are generated inside the vessel through fusion between ions that are accelerated by applying several tens kV voltage and tens mA current. Many parameters affect the plasma conditions and fusion in the system, hence the neutron production rate (NPR). This study investigates the cathode transparency and the number of apertures effect on NPR. For this end, eleven cathodes were fabricated from stainless steel in three different groups with different transparency and number of apertures. NPRs were investigated as a function of the cathode transparency and number of apertures at low power operating mode $\sim$1 kW. Experimental results revealed that higher NPR was produced from lower grid transparency and vice versa; this behavior was explained through beam--surface fusion with grid surface. In addition, a higher NPR was generated from the grid with many apertures; this was attributed to the effect of the deuterium ionization improvement by the number of ionizing electrons through the grid channels.},
 author = {Bakr, Mahmoud A. and Sakabe, Toshiro and Wulfk{\"u}hler, Jan-Philipp and Mukai, Keisuke and Smith, T. W. and Ogino, Yasuyuki and Tajmar, Martin and Scott, Thomas and Konishi, S.},
 year = {2023},
 title = {Influence of electrodes' geometrical properties on the neutron production rate of a discharge fusion neutron source},
 volume = {30},
 number = {3},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0134631}
}


@proceedings{18thInternationalConferenceonNuclearEngineeringICONE18.May1721,
 year = {2010},
 title = {18th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering, ICONE18}
}


@inproceedings{1997APS..GEC.RR109M,
 abstract = {The spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device is a unique apparatus that focuses and confines plasma ions without magnetic fields. The IEC consists of a spherical vacuum vessel (anode), a centrally located spherical wire cathode grid, and low pressure fill gas. When a large negative voltage is applied to the grid, positive ions are attracted to the cathode, but many pass completely through the holes of the grid in narrow beams called ion microchannels. The microchannels always pass through the center of the IEC in symmetric patterns and pass through the grid where the electric potential is smallest, which occurs at the centers of the largest grid openings. Electrons also are important to the IEC discharge. At higher pressures, a single electron cloud and jet are visible inside the cathode grid. The jet always passes through the largest hole of the cathode. The formation of the electron jet appears to be related to the ion microchannels. Experiments in progress measure the current of the ion and electron beams to determine the density and energy of charged particles in the beams. Also, experiments with various cathode grids show the effects of grid design on beam size and location. These experiments provide a better understanding of both the plasma physics and fusion capabilities of the spherical IEC device.},
 author = {Miley, G. H. and DeMora, John M.},
 title = {Studies of Ion and Electron Beams in a Spherical IEC Device},
 pages = {RR.109},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Annual Gaseous Electronics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{A.J.Satsangi.1993,
 author = {Satsangi, Ann J. and Javedani, Jalal B. and Yamamoto, Y. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Measured light from an IEC},
 pages = {107},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Sciences (ICOPS)},
 year = {1993},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1993.593111}
}


@article{AbdElSalam.2017,
 abstract = {The gas breakdown in the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device has been studied by DC discharge of Nitrogen gas in the pressure range between 0.03 Torr and 0.7 Torr. Paschen curves and Townsend coefficients are obtained in a cylindrical system with inner anode in shape of rods and the outer grid cathode. The breakdown occurs and the plasma is formed at the center of the electrodes. Townsend coefficients are calculated for anode transparencies of 84{\%}, 92{\%}, and 96{\%} (24, 12, and 6 rods respectively). On the left hand side of Paschen curves, the high transparency has a higher breakdown voltage. More electrons are allowed to pass the anode. So, the collisions increase, leading to a slight increment of the first Townsend coefficient (\textgreek{a}) decreasing of the second Townsend coefficient (\textgreek{g}) while the ionization efficiency (\textgreek{h}) is not affected. For high reduced electric field E/P, i.e. a high electric field with low pressure, the probability of ionizing collision events decreases. This causes a decrement of \textgreek{a} while \textgreek{g} is raised because the ions' energy is not exhausted in collisions at the center. The coefficients \textgreek{a} and \textgreek{g} are working in harmony to balance the rates of electrons generated in gas ionization so that the relation between the two coefficients is satisfied. {\copyright} 2017 Elsevier Ltd},
 author = {{Abd El-Salam}, Zainab S. and {Abd Al-Halim}, Mohamed A.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Investigation of gas breakdown in cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement device with inner cage anode},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85028462424&doi=10.1016%2fj.vacuum.2017.07.036&partnerID=40&md5=03c6d805da4212c210564ae916ce05c3},
 keywords = {anode transparency;Anodes;Cylinders (shapes);cylindrical geometry;Electric breakdown;Electric breakdown of gases;Electric discharges;Electric fields;Electrodes;Electrostatics;First Townsend Coefficient;High electric fields;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ionization;Ionization efficiency;Ionization of gases;Nitrogen;Partial discharges;Paschen curves;Townsend coefficient;Townsend coefficients;Transparency},
 pages = {237--242},
 volume = {144},
 issn = {0042207X},
 journal = {Vacuum},
 doi = {10.1016/j.vacuum.2017.07.036}
}


@article{AbdElSalam.2021,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) is investigated in terms of direct-current discharge in a cylindrical configuration using nitrogen gas in the pressure range between 0.028 and 0.09~Torr. Discharge characteristics are determined for different anode transparencies of 84{\%}, 92{\%}, and 96{\%} corresponding to 24, 12, and 6 anode rods, respectively. I-V characteristic curves indicate that the electric discharge is in the abnormal glow discharge region. The discharge voltage has the highest values for the low anode transparency for the same value of the discharge current. A double electric probe has been used to measure electron temperature and ion density. The low anode transparency (24 anode rods) enhances field uniformity and aligns the motion of electrons into a chord so that better electrostatic confinement is achieved. This will raise the ion density and lead to thermalization of the plasma, which reduces the electron temperature. The behavior of the electron temperature and the ion density was studied as a function of the gas pressure at the center and near the edge. The variation of the density and temperature in both positions can confirm the plasma confinement. In the low-pressure regime, the confinement process is reinforced. Because of the longer mean free path, electrons cause ionization at the center, which raises the ion density to about 1.44~$\times$~1015~m$-$3 and the electron temperature to about 2.9~eV. {\copyright} 2021 American Nuclear Society.},
 author = {{Abd El-Salam}, Zainab S. and Eltayeb, H. A. and Abdel-Kader, M. E. and {Abd Al-Halim}, Mohamed A.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Variation of Plasma Properties in Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device by Changing the Anode Transparency},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85104289691&doi=10.1080%2f15361055.2021.1889920&partnerID=40&md5=0c9e6d6d2c0e4683b15b76cfe09235fe},
 keywords = {Abnormal glow discharge;anode transparency;Anodes;Cylindrical configurations;cylindrical geometry;Direct-current discharge;Discharge characteristics;electron temperature;Electrons;Electrostatic confinement;Glow discharges;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;ion density;Ionization of gases;Ions;I-V characteristic curve;Transparency},
 pages = {289--297},
 volume = {77},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2021.1889920}
}


@article{AbuHashem.2010,
 abstract = {A dc cylindrical coaxial glow discharge with an inner grid anode has been studied. The region between the two electrodes is seen dark, while a brightly glowing region forms inside the grid anode up to the center. The current-voltage characteristic of a dc cylindrical glow discharge in nitrogen is similar to that of a normal glow discharge, while the normal glow discharge voltage decreases with increasing pressure. The minimum plasma potentials are observed in the hollow cathode region due to the accumulation of electrons at the back of the grid anode. At the center, some of the passed electrons are converged, so their potential is decreased. These electrons have a sufficient time to be redistributed to form one group with a Maxwellian electron energy distribution function. The electron temperature measured by electric probes varies from 1.6 to 3.6 eV, while the plasma density varies from 3.9 $\times$ 1016 to 7 $\times$ 1013 m$-$3, depending on the discharge current and probe position. The plasma density increases as the electrons move radially from the grid toward the central region, while their temperature decreases.},
 author = {Abu-Hashem, Alaa and {Abd Al-Halim}, Mohamed A. and Hassouba, M. A. and Masoud, Mohamed Mohamed},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Double layer in a cylindrical hollow-cathode discharge},
 pages = {271--278},
 volume = {36},
 number = {3},
 issn = {1063780X},
 journal = {Plasma Physics Reports},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063780X10030098}
}


@article{AbuHashem.2012,
 abstract = {A cylindrical dc coaxial glow discharge system with inner grid cathode was designed for ion confinement, and success- fully operated with low discharge current. The plasma is formed inside the cylindrical grid cathode. The discharge cur- rent-voltage characteristic curves and Paschen curve are obtained at different gas pressures. Langmuir probes are used to determine the electron temperature and the plasma density. The electron energy distribution functions indicated that, two groups of electrons, appear in radial interval from r = 12 mm up to r = 5 mm. One group of electrons with most probable energy around 1 eV appeared from r = 5 mm up to r = 0 mm. The electron temperature Te is increased with in- creasing the current and also with moving from the center toward the grid cathode. Poisson's equation is used to calcu- late the plasma density at different radial positions. The plasma density measured by the single probe is around 1015 m--3. A comparison is obtained between calculated plasma density and that measured by Langmuir probes. Experimental and calculated results have the same profile},
 author = {Abu-Hashem, Alaa and Hassouba, Mohamed Ali and Masoud, Mohamed Mohamed},
 year = {2012},
 title = {Investigations of Ion Confinement by Direct Current Coaxial Glow Discharge},
 url = {http://www.scirp.org/journal/doi.aspx?DOI=10.4236/jmp.2012.31007},
 keywords = {coaxial glow discharge;Inertial electrostatic confinement;virtual anode},
 pages = {48--56},
 volume = {03},
 number = {01},
 journal = {Journal of Modern Physics},
 doi = {10.4236/jmp.2012.31007}
}


@article{AdinehVand.2014,
 abstract = {This paper presents a soft computing based artificial intelligent technique, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) to predict the neutron production rate (NPR) of IR-IECF device in wide discharge current and voltage ranges. A hybrid learning algorithm consists of back-propagation and least-squares estimation is used for training the ANFIS model. The performance of the proposed ANFIS model is tested using the experimental data using four performance measures: correlation coefficient, mean absolute error, mean relative error percentage (MRE{\%}) and root mean square error. The obtained results show that the proposed ANFIS model has achieved good agreement with the experimental results. In comparison to the experimental data the proposed ANFIS model has MRE{\%} {\textless}1.53 and 2.85 {\%} for training and testing data respectively. Therefore, this model can be used as an efficient tool to predict the NPR in the IR-IECF device. {\copyright} 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York.},
 author = {Adineh-Vand, A. and Torabi, M. and Roshani, G. H. and Taghipour, M. and Feghhi, S. A. H. and Rezaei, M. and Sadati, S. M.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Application of Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System for Prediction of Neutron Yield of IR-IECF Facility in High Voltages},
 url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10894-013-9631-z},
 keywords = {ANFIS;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;IR-IECF device;NPR;Prediction},
 pages = {13--19},
 volume = {33},
 number = {1},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-013-9631-z}
}


@article{Afsharmanesh.2015,
 abstract = {The radial profile of the neutron production rate in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices (IECF) is investigated. The electrostatic potential is determined by solving the Poisson equation, and by using the potential; the fuel ion energy distribution function is determined at each radial point. From the energy distribution function, the fusion reaction rate is evaluated. Dependence of beam-beam and beam-background reaction rate on some important parameters as the spreads in the normalized angular ion energies, working pressure, and grid transparency are investigated. Graphical abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.] {\copyright} 2015 EDP Sciences, SIF, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.},
 author = {Afsharmanesh, Mohsen and Habibi, M.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Analytical investigation of neutron production rate in spherical IECF devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84942475070&doi=10.1140%2fepjd%2fe2015-60215-4&partnerID=40&md5=f5a736b01e51aa7ce90b808d4cd6e6c3},
 keywords = {Analytical investigations;Distribution functions;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatic potentials;Electrostatics;Energy distribution functions;Fusion reactions;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion energy distribution functions;Neutron production rates;Plasma interactions;Plasma physics;Poisson distribution;Poisson equation;Reaction rates;Working pressures},
 volume = {69},
 number = {9},
 issn = {14346060},
 journal = {European Physical Journal D},
 doi = {10.1140/epjd/e2015-60215-4}
}


@inproceedings{Ahern.2017,
 abstract = {The Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is a space propulsion concept using a helicon plasma source and grids from inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion theory. The helicon source generates a dense plasma, and the IEC grids extract the ions, producing a thrust. A unique feature of this setup is that the IEC grids are designed to also produce a jet of electrons, resulting in a neutralized plasma exhaust. In this study, a Langmuir probe and a Mach probe have been placed at the interface between the helicon and grid system, and a retarding potential analyzer (RPA) has been placed downstream. Langmuir probe results show electron temperatures ranging from 15 to 30 eV, depending on the bias potential of the helicon plasma. Mach probe results provide some preliminary data on the Mach number. RPA results indicate that ions are exiting with energies approximately equal to the bias potential of the helicon plasma. RPA results also show that high energy electrons are present when a potential of a few negative kV is applied to the IEC grid system. These results are encouraging, suggesting that the basic concept behind HIIPER is sound.},
 author = {Ahern, Drew and Al-Rashdan, H. and Altun, O. and Berland, G. and Broemmelsiek, Emil and Chen, Z. and Choakpichitchai, P. and Dong, Z. and Drew, P. and Richardson, N. and {St Lawrence}, N. and Stanevich, K. and Valiaveedu, A. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Experimental studies of the helicon injected inertial plasma electrostatic rocket (HIIPER)},
 keywords = {electron temperature;Electrostatics;Helicon plasma;Helicon plasma source;Helicon sources;Helicons;High-energy electron;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Langmuir probes;Plasma sources;Propulsion;Retarding potential analyzer;Rockets;Space propulsions;Unique features},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-511-1},
 booktitle = {53rd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2017}
}


@inproceedings{Ahern.2018,
 abstract = {The Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is an electrostatic space propulsion concept that uses a helicon source to generate a plasma and metal grids from inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion theory to accelerate the resulting ions. Additionally, the IEC grids are able to produce a directed exhaust of electrons, thus providing charge neutralization to the ions being extracted. In this study, a Langmuir probe was used to measure the plasma density inside and at the exit of the helicon source. Retarding potential analyzer (RPA) measurements provided electron energy distributions as well as the approximate divergence of the ions and electrons in the exhaust. Additionally, RPA data showed that proper design of the IEC grid system is important for optimal ion extraction. A torsional pendulum was used to measure changes in thrust of the exhaust, which was in the µN range. These low thrust values and therefore low overall efficiency were due to ion losses in the experimental setup, however general behavior of the thrust as a function of IEC grid and RF power are presented. Improvement of HIIPER's performance is likely possible by creating a self-contained thruster, which would eliminate ion losses from grounded vacuum chamber walls. Overall, this work has shown the feasibility of HIIPER as a space propulsion method and has laid the groundwork for future testing. {\copyright} 2018, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Ahern, Drew and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Experimental analysis of the helicon injected inertial plasma electrostatic rocket (Hiiper)},
 keywords = {Charge neutralization;Electron energy distributions;Electron energy levels;Electrostatics;Experimental analysis;Helicons;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Ions;Langmuir probes;Overall efficiency;Plasma density;Retarding potential analyzer;Rockets;Spacecraft propulsion;Torsional pendulum;Vacuum chamber wall},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-570-8},
 booktitle = {54th AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, 2018},
 year = {2018}
}


@phdthesis{Ahern.2018b,
 author = {Ahern, Drew},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Investigation of a Space Propulsion Concept Using Inertial Electrostatic Confinement},
 url = {https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/100997/AHERN-DISSERTATION-2018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Ahmed.2023,
 abstract = {A radiation source based on the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) system is being developed for multidisciplinary research applications. The radiation outputs from the IECF system are 2.45 MeV fast neutrons and the associated co-generated X-rays with an energy less than 3 MeV. A radiation shielding study has been performed on five types of concrete to define the most efficient material for the shielding design of the system. The proposed materials were ilmenite-magnetite concrete (IMC), ordinary concrete-1 (OC-1), barite-containing concrete (BC), ordinary concrete-2 (OC-2), and serpentine-containing concrete (SC). A numerical model was applied to determine the effective removal cross-section coefficients ($\sum$Rt) for the fast neutrons and the total mass attenuation coefficients (µm), the half-value layer (HVL), the mean free path (MFP), the effective atomic number (Zeff), and effective electron density (Neff) for photons inside the materials. The model considered the radiation source energy and the material properties of the concrete types. The results revealed that the serpentine-containing concrete exhibited the highest $\sum$Rt with 12 cm of concrete thickness needed to attenuate an incident neutron flux to 1/100 of its initial value. In addition, the BC shows the highest µm with a 38 cm concrete thickness needed to attenuate the 3 MeV energy X-ray flux to 1/100 of its initial value. This study suggests that a 40 cm thickness of SC or BC adequately shields the radiation generated from an IECF system with a maximum particle production rate of up to 1 $\times$ 107 n/s.},
 author = {Ahmed, Rawheya and {Saad Hassan}, Galal and Scott, Thomas and Bakr, Mahmoud A.},
 year = {2023},
 title = {Assessment of Five Concrete Types as Candidate Shielding Materials for a Compact Radiation Source Based on the IECF},
 keywords = {concrete material;fast neutrons removal cross-section;Inertial electrostatic confinement;mass attenuation coefficient;neutron and X-ray applications;radiation shielding materials},
 volume = {16},
 number = {7},
 issn = {1996-1944},
 journal = {Materials (Basel, Switzerland)},
 doi = {10.3390/ma16072845},
 file = {Assessment{\_}of{\_}Five{\_}Concrete{\_}Types{\_}as{\_}Candidate{\_}Shi:Attachments/Assessment{\_}of{\_}Five{\_}Concrete{\_}Types{\_}as{\_}Candidate{\_}Shi.pdf:application/pdf}
}


@proceedings{AIAA.1997,
 year = {1997},
 title = {Proceedings of the 33rd AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 institution = {AIAA},
 doi = {10.2514/MJPC97}
}


@proceedings{AIAAASMESAEandASEE.1994,
 year = {1994},
 title = {Proc. of the 30th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 institution = {{AIAA, ASME, SAE, and ASEE}}
}


@phdthesis{Alderson.2012,
 author = {Alderson, Eric C.},
 year = {2012},
 title = {Experimental and Theoretical Characterization of Negative Deuterium Ion Distributions in a Gridded Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{University of Wiscon-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{AlKhateeb.2018,
 author = {Al-Khateeb, Ali Hussein},
 year = {2018},
 title = {A Modelling Study of Transparent Cathode Discharge Breakdown},
 school = {{University of Liverpool}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@proceedings{AmericanInstituteofPhysics.2002,
 year = {2002},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 volume = {608},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 institution = {{American Institute of Physics}}
}


@proceedings{AmericanPhysicalSociety.1996,
 year = {1996},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 institution = {{American Physical Society}}
}


@proceedings{AmericanPhysicalSociety.1999,
 year = {1999},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 institution = {{American Physical Society}}
}


@proceedings{AmericanPhysicalSociety.1999b,
 year = {1999},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 institution = {{American Physical Society}}
}


@proceedings{AmericanPhysicalSociety.2000,
 year = {2000},
 title = {APS April Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 institution = {{American Physical Society}}
}


@proceedings{AmericanPhysicalSociety.2001,
 year = {2001},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 institution = {{American Physical Society}}
}


@proceedings{AmericanPhysicalSociety.2002,
 year = {2002},
 title = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 institution = {{American Physical Society}}
}


@inproceedings{Anderl.1995,
 author = {Anderl, R. A. and Hartwell, J. K. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Development of an IEC neutron source for NDE},
 pages = {1482--1485},
 booktitle = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1995.534505}
}


@article{Andreev.2023,
 abstract = {In this paper, the full electromagnetic code KARAT is presented in detail, the scope of which is a computational experiment in applied problems of engineering electrodynamics. The basis of the physical model used is Maxwell{\&}rsquo;s equations together with boundary conditions for fields, as well as material equations linking currents with field strengths. The Particle in Cell (PiC) method for the kinetic description of plasma is implemented in the code. A unique feature of the code KARAT is the possibility of the self-consistent modeling of inelastic processes, in particular, nuclear reactions, at each time step in the process of electrodynamic calculation. The aneutronic proton{\&}ndash;boron nuclear reaction, accompanied by the release of almost only {\&}alpha;-particles, is extremely in demand in medicine and, perhaps, in the future, will form the basis for obtaining {\&}ldquo;clean{\&}rdquo; nuclear energy. The results of a numerical simulation within the framework of the code KARAT of the key physical processes leading to the proton{\&}ndash;boron fusion are presented and discussed both for laser-driven plasma and for a plasma oscillatory confinement scheme.},
 author = {Andreev, Stepan N. and Kurilenkov, Yuri K. and Oginov, Alexander V.},
 year = {2023},
 title = {Fully Electromagnetic Code KARAT Applied to the Problem of Aneutronic Proton-Boron Fusion},
 keywords = {fully electromagnetic code;nuclear proton--boron fusion;PiC simulations},
 volume = {11},
 number = {18},
 issn = {2227-7390},
 journal = {Mathematics},
 doi = {10.3390/math11184009}
}


@inproceedings{Ashley.1999b,
 abstract = {Advanced fusion fuels, D and He-3, have been successfully fused in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device at the University of Wisconsin. It is thought that this is the first known fusion of helium-3 with deuterium on a steady state basis. The detection of 14.7 MeV protons has confirmed the reaction of D-He-3 fusion, and has produced a continuous, charged particle flux in excess of 1.4 x 10(5) protons/s. Using the same device with D-D fuel a neutron rate of 2.2 x 10(7) was achieved. Operating parameters that affect the reaction rate are discussed.},
 author = {Ashley, Robert P. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Piefer, Gregory R.},
 title = {D-He-3 fusion in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 keywords = {CONVERGENT ION FOCUS},
 pages = {35--37},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1999.849787}
}


@article{Ashley.2001,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement of ions has been successfully used to achieve conditions necessary for the fusion of advanced fuels, such as 3He. This type of device at the University of Wisconsin was the first to produce steady-state D3He fusion, and has since produced up to 7 $\times$ 106 14.7 MeV proton/s from the D3He fusion reaction. The factors influencing the reaction rate and the experimental results are discussed.},
 author = {Ashley, Robert P. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Piefer, Gregory R. and Radel, Ross F.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Steady-state D3HE proton production in an iec fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035270769&doi=10.13182%2ffst01-a11963293&partnerID=40&md5=a3122abcfe4c8d07cc941a5c578e6b9d},
 keywords = {Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Ions;Nuclear fuels;Proton production;Protons},
 pages = {546--551},
 volume = {39},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst01-a11963293}
}


@article{Ashley.2003,
 abstract = {The University of Wisconsin (UW) inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) facility has made significant progress since 2000. The operating voltage has doubled to 160 kV. The neutron production rate has increased by a factor of 2, from 4.9 $\times$ 107/s to 1.1 $\times$ 108s-1. The D-3He proton production rate has increased by a factor of over 40. In addition new diagnostics have been developed, including a method to determine the spatial distribution of fusion reactions. A new water cooled stainless steel chamber for higher power and lower pressure has been put into operation. Medical isotopes have been produced in an IEC device for the first time.},
 author = {Ashley, Robert P. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Piefer, Gregory R. and Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Radel, Ross F. and Weidner, J. W.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Recent progress in steady state fusion using D-3He},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0043289853&doi=10.13182%2fFST03-A398&partnerID=40&md5=f159e394d656d7f9ca355ba011a442d3},
 keywords = {Boron compounds;Energy spectrum;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Interfaces (materials);Isotopes;Neutrons;Proton detector;Stainless steel;Steady state fusion;Thickness measurement;Water cooled reactors;X rays},
 pages = {564--566},
 volume = {44},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST03-A398}
}


@misc{Azovskii.1976,
 author = {Azovskii, Yu S. and Zaitsev, B. V. and Lavrent'ev, O. A. and Sappa, N. N. and Sidorkin, V.},
 date = {1976},
 title = {Generation and Focusing of Ions from a Source with Distributed Parameters},
 number = {Report 76-9},
 institution = {{Institute of Physics and Technology, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Kharkov}}
}


@inproceedings{B.P.Bromley.1997,
 author = {Bromley, Blair P. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Approximate modeling cylindrical IEC fusion device},
 pages = {324--325},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. 1997 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1997},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1997.605206}
}


@article{Bagheri.2020,
 abstract = {Using a three-dimensional numerical simulation, the dependencies of the electron cloud (virtual cathode) on the distance between the coils in the Polywell fusion reactor were examined. In the Polywell, the role of a stable and energetic virtual cathode is crucial for fusion. It is shown that by increasing the spacing coils, the electron confinement time increases initially and then remains constant. Using the simulation results, an optimum range for the spacing of coils was suggested, which leads to a longer and more effective confinement. The results obtained can be used to design future devices in order to have a more effective virtual cathode. {\copyright} 2020 Author(s).},
 author = {Bagheri, M. and {Salar Elahi}, A. and Salem, M. K. and Ghoranneviss, M.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {The effect of spacing factor on the confinement time of the electrons in a low beta Polywell device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85092020737&doi=10.1063%2f1.5129360&partnerID=40&md5=205e58aec6157e38f38ae938d4b54a84},
 keywords = {A-stable;Cathodes;Effective confinements;Electron clouds;Electron confinement;Spacing factor;Three-dimensional numerical simulations;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {10},
 number = {5},
 issn = {21583226},
 journal = {AIP Advances},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5129360}
}


@inproceedings{Bakr.2019,
 abstract = {We are developing, the first of its type, a portable active interrogation system for special nuclear materials (SNMs) detection such as U-235 and Pu-239. The system is based on the recently developed technique, threshold energy neutron analysis (TENA) method. Mandatory aspects for the neutron generator to be used for on-site inspection as well as for container screening at ports of entry is intense neutron as 5$\times$107 n/s neutron yield in a very compact configuration such as $\sim$25 cm diameter, 60 cm height, and lightweight $\sim$30 kg. The criteria mentioned above are matching the neutron generator based on the D-D fusion reaction from Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion device. Two prototypes of the DD-IEC fusion device, with 17 cm anode diameter, have been designed, fabricated and tested. The anode of the first device was made from stainless steel, while titanium was chosen to build the second version. The cathode for both versions was made from molybdenum with 6 cm diameter. High voltage and current are required to achieve the target neutron yield from the compact configuration. To cope with that, we used a developed technique called a multistage feedthrough method to enable applying higher voltage and current, up to 120 kV and 300 mA, in a compact configuration. The neutron production rate (NPR) achieved from the 1st prototype was $\sim$2.8$\times$107 n/s by applying 70 kV and 150 mA, and from the 2nd prototype was 8.9$\times$107 n/s, by applying 75 kV and 70 mA current, which exceeds the target NPR designed for the SNMs interrogation system. The technical developments and challenges to construct and operate the prototypes of the DD-IEC fusion device are discussed together with the experimental results for the NPR measurements. {\copyright} 2019 Author(s).},
 author = {Bakr, Mahmoud A. and Masuda, Kai and Yoshida, M.},
 title = {Development of a portable neutron generator based on inertial electrostatic confinement D-D fusion reaction},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85074302281&doi=10.1063%2f1.5127679&partnerID=40&md5=a7c5005796144e26131a6d9762cf885d},
 volume = {2160},
 publisher = {AIP},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {2019},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5127679}
}


@article{Bakr.2019b,
 abstract = {Neutrons are generated in the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device through different types of fusion reactions of the fuel gas such as deuterium (D) and tritium (T). Fusion in the IEC device takes place via various kinds of collisions like beam-beam collision, beam--background gas collision, and beam-target collision on the electrode surfaces. Two identical anodes for the IEC chamber made from titanium (Ti) and SUS-316L stainless steel (SS) are used to study the effect of the anode material on the neutron production rate (NPR). The NPRs from the chambers are measured at different applied powers. The achieved NPRs, so far, for Ti and SS are 8.9~$\times$~107~n/s at 5.25~kW (75~kV, 70~mA) and 2.8~$\times$~107~n/s at 10.5~kW (70~kV, 150~mA), respectively. The normalized NPR (NPR rated to the cathode current) from the Ti chamber is three to four times higher than that from the SS chamber. We observed a better NPR for the Ti chamber compared with the SS chamber. This is explained by the fusion reaction occurring between the neutrals and D atoms adsorbed/embedded on the inner surface of the anode. Moreover, the Ti chamber shows an improvement of the NPR as a function of the operating time ranging from 1.5 to 1.75 after 25~h from the first discharge. {\copyright} 2019, {\copyright} 2019 American Nuclear Society.},
 author = {Bakr, Mahmoud A. and Masuda, Kai and Yoshida, M.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Improvement of the Neutron Production Rate of IEC Fusion Device by the Fusion Reaction on the Inner Surface of the IEC Chamber},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85069539582&doi=10.1080%2f15361055.2019.1609821&partnerID=40&md5=52f0f38922323e6d0f88e92001569be7},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cathode currents;Electrode surfaces;Electrostatics;First discharge;fusion reaction;Fusion reactions;IEC fusion device;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;neutron production rate;Neutron production rates;Neutrons;Plasma interactions;Surface reactions;Thermonuclear reactions;Titanium;titanium anode;Titanium anodes},
 pages = {479--486},
 volume = {75},
 number = {6},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2019.1609821}
}


@article{Bakr.2021,
 abstract = {Our group is developing an ultra-compact neutron source based on inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device for various applications at Kyoto University. This IEC device is configured from a titanium anode and a molybdenum cathode with diameters of 17 and 6 cm, respectively. A high-intensity neutron source operated in a stable pulse shape is mandatory to increase the system's reliability. Applying a higher voltage is a straightforward way to increase the neutron yield from the system. However, a contradiction between the increase of the applied voltage and the reduction of the system size limits such a proposal. A three-stage feedthrough system is employed in the developed compact IEC to address this contradiction. A feedback control system was developed and applied to the input and output parameters, such as the applied voltage and the neutron yield, to increase its stability in long-term operation. Characterization of the developed system was performed by scanning the neutron yield as a function of applied voltage and cathode current. To date, a maximum neutron yield of 9.2 $\times$ 107n·s--1 at 6.4 kW (80 kV and 80 mA) has been obtained. A study of the feasibility of using the IEC system for neutron radiography was performed. Preliminary analysis of the resulting images showed there was good contrast between the sample and the background. The results suggest that optimization of the experimental parameters is needed to perform higher accuracy neutron radiography. {\copyright} 2021 Elsevier B.V.},
 author = {Bakr, Mahmoud A. and Mukai, Keisuke and Masuda, Kai and Yagi, Juro and Konishi, S.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Characterization of an ultra-compact neutron source based on an IEC fusion device and its prospective applications in radiography},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85101068594&doi=10.1016%2fj.fusengdes.2021.112346&partnerID=40&md5=047f6eca704aed7c06a3ee1571b60a40},
 keywords = {Adaptive control systems;Cathode currents;Cathodes;Closed loop control systems;Compact neutron source;Experimental parameters;Feedback control;Fusion reactors;IEC fusion device;Imaging plates;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Input and outputs;Kyoto University;Neutron radiography;Neutron sources;neutron yield;Neutrons;Preliminary analysis;Prospective applications;Radiography},
 volume = {167},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/j.fusengdes.2021.112346}
}


@article{Bakr.2021b,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device accelerates ions, such as deuterium (D) or tritium (T), to produce nuclear fusion and generate neutrons. The IEC's straightforward configuration consists of a concentric spherical transparent cathode at a negative bias surrounded by a grounded spherical anode. The effects of cathode properties on the neutron production rate (NPR) remain, to date, inadequately studied. This study aims to determine the impact of the cathode material on the NPR by investigating fusion reactions on the cathode surface. Two buckyball-shaped cathodes made of stainless steel (SS) and titanium (Ti), both of 5 cm diameter, fabricated by selective laser melting and 3D printing, are used for this investigation. A SS spherical chamber of 25 cm inner diameter is used as an anode in this experiment. A performance evaluation of surface fusion reaction in the IEC using SS and Ti grids is conducted by examining the NPR as a function of the applied voltage and grid currents at different gas pressures. So far, IEC with Ti and SS cathodes achieves NPRs of 2.32 and 1.41 $\times$ 107 n/s, respectively, at 5.6 kW (70 kV, 80 mA). The normalized NPRs (NPR/I-cathode) from IEC using SS and Ti cathodes are compared. The results demonstrate that fusion reaction occurs on the cathode surface, and fusion increases with the applied voltage. The measured NPR/I-cathode using the Ti cathode is higher than that of the SS cathode by factors of 1.36-1.64 across the 20-70 kV range. Moreover, fusion on the Ti cathode surface enhances the total NPR significantly compared to the SS cathode under the same conditions. The Ti's considerable ability to accumulate D ions and molecules compared with that of SS explains the difference of measured NPR results. {\copyright} 2021 Author(s).},
 author = {Bakr, Mahmoud A. and Wulfk{\"u}hler, Jan-Philipp and Mukai, Keisuke and Masuda, Kai and Tajmar, Martin and Konishi, S.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Evaluation of 3D printed buckyball-shaped cathodes of titanium and stainless-steel for IEC fusion system},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85099791683&doi=10.1063%2f5.0033342&partnerID=40&md5=5041c6bacd3ee25146aa73a437e75d53},
 keywords = {Anodes;Applied voltages;Cathode surface;Cathodes;Deuteriums (d);Fusion systems;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inner diameters;Neutron production rates;Selective laser melting;Spheres;Stainless steel;Surface reactions;Thermonuclear reactions;Transparent cathode},
 volume = {28},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0033342}
}


@article{Bandara.2013,
 abstract = {A pulsed, positive polarity gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device has been investigated experimentally, using a differential emissive probe and potential traces as primary diagnostics. Large amplitude oscillations in the plasma current and plasma potential were observed within a microsecond of the discharge onset, which are indicative of coherent ion oscillations about a temporarily confined excess of recirculating electron space charge. The magnitude of the depth of the potential well in the established virtual cathode was determined using a differential emissive Langmuir probe, which correlated well to the potential well inferred from the ion oscillation frequency for both hydrogen and argon experiments. It was found that the timescale for ion oscillation dispersion is strongly dependent on the neutral gas density, and weakly dependent on the peak anode voltage. The cessation of the oscillations was found to be due to charge exchange processes converting ions to high velocity neutrals, causing the abrupt de-coherence of the oscillations through an avalanche dispersion in phase space. {\copyright} 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.},
 author = {Bandara, Rehan and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Spherical ion oscillations in a positive polarity gridded inertial-electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84882264782&doi=10.1063%2f1.4813801&partnerID=40&md5=974a4c23f26acdeaa9e927f50a881bd2},
 keywords = {Charge exchange process;Charge transfer;Dispersions;Electric discharges;Electron space charge;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Large amplitude oscillation;Oscillation frequency;Phase space methods;Plasma potential;Plasmas;Positive polarity;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {20},
 number = {7},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4813801}
}


@article{Bandara.2015,
 abstract = {A pulsed, positively biased gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device has been investigated experimentally, using Doppler broadened spectra and current and voltage traces as primary diagnostics. In the high current and energy regime explored in this paper resulting from the removal of the series ballast resistance from the external biasing circuit, large amplitude oscillations in the plasma current and potential were observed within 100ns of the discharge onset. These oscillations are attributed to the nonlinear and saturated Buneman instability, characterised by a locked oscillation frequency as a function of increasing anode potential. The saturated Buneman instability is known to exhibit ion mass independent behaviour and cause electron trapping, resulting in a transient spatio-temporal virtual cathode and ponderomotive ion confinement, as evidenced by broadened spectra when operated at high currents. {\copyright} 2015 AIP Publishing LLC.},
 author = {Bandara, Rehan and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Nonlinear saturation of the ion-electron Buneman instability in a spherical positively pulsed gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84938506256&doi=10.1063%2f1.4927783&partnerID=40&md5=55915be8ae42dfc038b209fc38dcfae4},
 keywords = {Ballast resistance;Broadened spectra;Buneman instability;Circuit oscillations;Doppler effect;Electrodes;Electron trapping;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Large amplitude oscillation;Nonlinear saturation;Oscillation frequency},
 volume = {22},
 number = {8},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4927783}
}


@phdthesis{Bandara.2015b,
 author = {Bandara, Rehan},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Experimental observations of spherical plasma oscillations in a positively pulsed inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@misc{Barnes.1970,
 author = {Barnes, Christopher W.},
 date = {1970},
 title = {Computer simulation experiments on electrostatic--inertial confinement. Final report},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/7284775},
 number = {AD-716860; SU-IPR-391},
 institution = {{Stanford Univ., Calif. (USA). Inst. for Plasma Research}}
}


@misc{Barnes.1970b,
 author = {Barnes, Christopher W.},
 date = {1970},
 title = {Computer Simulation of Spherically Symmetric Plasma},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4119016},
 number = {AD-708523; SU-IPR-344; AFOSR-70-1006-TR},
 institution = {{Stanford Univ., Calif. (USA). Inst. for Plasma Research}}
}


@inproceedings{Barnes.1971,
 author = {Barnes, Christopher W.},
 title = {Computer Simulation of the Cylindrical Electrostatic-Inertial Confinement Device},
 pages = {1221},
 volume = {16},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1971}
}


@misc{Barnes.1973,
 abstract = {he technique of numerical plasma simulation is here used to study the behavior of the electrostatic-inertial confinement device. Particle type simulation models calculate the time evolution of the plasma contained within a spherical chamber into which high energy ions are radially injected. Two types of steady state configurations were found to exist, one of which includes a virtual anode. Neither allows a particle density enhancement over that due to geometrical focusing. (auth)},
 author = {Barnes, Christopher W.},
 date = {1973},
 title = {Computer simulation of electrostatic inertial confinement. Final report},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4326279},
 number = {AD-763826; SU-IPR-527; AFOSR-TR-73-1117},
 institution = {{Stanford Univ., Calif. (USA). Inst. for Plasma Research}}
}


@article{Barnes.1975,
 author = {Barnes, Christopher W.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {Computer Simulation of Electrostatic Confinement of Plasmas},
 pages = {370--380},
 volume = {251},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
 doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00103.x}
}


@article{Barnes.1993,
 abstract = {We argue that alternate fusion approaches should be pursued if 1) They do not require magnetic confinement superior to tokamaks; 2) Their physics basis may be succinctly stated and experimentally tested; 3) They offer near-term applications to important technical problems; and 4) Their cost to proof-of-principle is low enough to be consistent with budget realities. An approach satisfying all of these criteria is presented, based on continuous inertial confinement. E such an approach, the inertia of a nonequilibrium plasma produces concentrations of plasma density. Recent theoretical developments[l] indicate that fusion gain of order unity or greater may be produced in a system as small as a few mm radius! Confinement is that of a nonneutralized plasma. A pure electron plasma with a radial beam velocity distribution is absolutely confined by an applied Penning trap field. Spherical convergence of the confined electrons forms a deep virtual cathode near T = 0, in which thermonuclear ions are absolutely confined at useful densities. We examine the equilibrium, stability, and classical relaxation of such systems. A sketch of immediate and long-term experimental opportunities is given.},
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Nebel, Richard A. and Turner, L. and Tiouririne, T. N.},
 year = {1993},
 title = {Alternate fusion: continuous inertial confinement},
 url = {http://stacks.iop.org/0741-3335/35/i=8/a=003?key=crossref.3cfcd1ff25d3de652425845576decc09},
 pages = {929--940},
 volume = {35},
 number = {8},
 issn = {07413335},
 journal = {Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0741-3335/35/8/003}
}


@article{Barnes.1993b,
 abstract = {A new paradigm for producing well--confined, dense--thermonuclear plasmas is described. The convergence of a radial beam distribution of a Penning--trap--confined plasma produces a dense inertially confined non--neutral plasma. The equilibrium, stability, classical transport, and particle--handling properties of such a concept are developed. The application of this approach to controlled fusion using a pure electron plasma to form a central virtual cathode in which ions are electrostatically confined is discussed. On one hand, extreme plasma control is required, placing the major uncertainty on issues of machine precision. On the other hand, development is characterized by the manufacture and testing of extremely small and inexpensive systems. Thus, it would seem that a timely experimental test of this concept would be ineluctable. Success at such experiments might indicate an alternate path to practical fusion applications.},
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Nebel, Richard A. and Turner, Leaf},
 year = {1993},
 title = {Production and application of dense Penning trap plasmas},
 pages = {3651--3660},
 volume = {5},
 number = {10},
 issn = {0899-8221},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids B: Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.860837}
}


@misc{Barnes.1994,
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Nebel, Richard A.},
 date = {1994},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Experiments at Low Working Pressure},
 number = {NTTR-101, prepared under Contract DAAK70-93-C-0038 US Army, Nambe Tech Corp},
 institution = {{Los Alamos National Lab}}
}


@article{Barnes.1997b,
 abstract = {Several years ago, it was proposed that a dense non-neutral plasma could be produced in a Penning trap. Nonneutral plasmas have excellent confinement, and such a dense plasma might produce simultaneously high density and good confinement. Recently, this theoretical conjecture has been demonstrated in a small (3 mm radius) electron experiment, PFX (Penning Fusion Experiment). Densities up to 35 times the Brillouin density (limiting number density in a static trap) have been inferred from the observed strong (100:1) spherical focusing. Electrons are injected at low energy from a single pole of the sphere. A surprising observation is the self-organization of the system into a spherical state, which occurs precisely when the trap parameters are adjusted to produce a spherical well. This organization is caused by a bootstrapping mechanism which produces a hysteresis. Observations of energy-scattered electrons confirm the existence of a dense spherical focus. {\copyright} 1997, American Institute of Physics. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Mitchell, T. B. and Schauer, M. M.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Beyond the Brillouin limit with the Penning Fusion Experiment},
 keywords = {Electric fields;Magnetic fields;Orbits;Plasma confinement;Plasma density;TRAPPED ELECTRONS;TRAPPING},
 pages = {1745--1751},
 volume = {4},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.872276}
}


@article{Barnes.1998,
 abstract = {The problem of large-amplitude spherical oscillations of an ion cloud in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device is examined. It is shown that ion fluctuations of a Gaussian profile in a spherical, harmonic well are stable to all hydrodynamic modes, and stable oscillations about the oscillating equilibrium state may be damped by continuum damping. It is also shown that the ion state forms a thermal equilibrium, in spite of the orders of magnitude, density, and temperature changes during the oscillation cycle. Finally, a brief discussion of how to experimentally realize the required electron distributions for these oscillations is presented.},
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Nebel, Richard A.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Stable, thermal equilibrium, large-amplitude, spherical plasma oscillations in electrostatic confinement devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-17344367861&doi=10.1063%2f1.872933&partnerID=40&md5=7d3ec771218db4095524632b570721c8},
 pages = {2498--2503},
 volume = {5},
 number = {7},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.872933}
}


@inproceedings{Barnes.1998b,
 author = {Barnes, Christopher W. and Nebel, Richard A. and Schauer, M. M. and Umstadter, K. R.},
 title = {Spherically-Convergent, Advanced-Fuel Systems},
 pages = {R8M3.007},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1998}
}


@article{Barnes.1999,
 abstract = {An equilibrium electron distribution is exhibited which forms a uniform electron density focus within a spherical system. Such a focus may be used to form a spherical, harmonic well for ion focusing as previously discussed. A self-consistent density and space-charge potential are calculated and the optimum focus radius is determined. Nonideal effects on electron and ion motion in the resulting electrostatic well are briefly discussed and strategies for their minimization are derived. {\copyright} 1999 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C.},
 year = {1999},
 title = {Uniform-density, spherical electron focus},
 pages = {4472--4478},
 volume = {6},
 number = {12},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.873734}
}


@inproceedings{Barnes.1999b,
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Nebel, Richard A. and Ribe, F. L. and Schauer, M. M. and Schranck, L. S. and Umstadter, K. R.},
 title = {Novel, spherically-convergent ion systems for neutron source and fusion energy production},
 pages = {336--341},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1063/1.59153}
}


@article{Barnes.2000,
 abstract = {The Penning fusion concept is described. Recent theoretical work on eliminating limitations on thermonuclear gain (Q) associated with ion--ion collisions is reviewed. A critical issue identified is the demonstration of the desired spherical electron configuration. Constraints on the electron distribution function are derived. A small combined trap (majority electrons), PFX-I (Penning Fusion eXperiment-Ions) has been constructed to study these issues. PFX-I is described. Two diagnostics described for electrons are destructive dumping of trapped electrons and noninvasive optical detection of impact induced fluorescence. Initial results of PFX-I operation at applied voltages V0 up to 2 kV and magnetic fields B up to 1.14 T are described. Electron equilibrium is found to be consistent with trap filling to the space charge limit, with inventory proportional to V0 and independent of B. Electron confinement times range from 1 to 10 ms and are determined by neutral pressure. These results are interpreted and future directions sketched.},
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Schauer, M. M. and Umstadter, K. R. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Electron equilibrium and confinement in a modified Penning trap and its application to Penning fusion},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.873987},
 keywords = {FUSION YIELD;GAIN;ION-ION COLLISIONS;PENNING EFFECT;PENNING ION SOURCES;Plasma confinement;Plasma diagnostics;SPACE CHARGE;THERMONUCLEAR REACTORS;TRAPS},
 pages = {1693--1701},
 volume = {7},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.873987}
}


@article{Barnes.2002,
 abstract = {Equilibrium and stability of a collisionless, spherical Vlasov system with uniform density are considered. Such an electron system is useful for the Periodically Oscillating Plasma Sphere (POPS) fusion system. In POPS the space charge of a uniform-density spherical electron cloud provides a harmonic well for an under-dense thermal ion population. Previous special solutions [D. C. Barnes, Phys. Plasmas 6, 4472 (1999)] are extended to arbitrary energy dependence. These equilibrium distribution functions and their first derivatives may be made nonsingular, in contrast to the previous solutions. Linear stability of general spherical equilibria is considered, and reduced to a one-dimensional calculation by the introduction of a spherical harmonic decomposition. All azimuthal mode numbers are degenerate. Using this formalism, the low-frequency stability of a collisionless, spherical Vlasov electron system coupled to a minority ion cloud is studied for the class of uniform-density electron equilibria found. In the low-frequency (adiabatic) limit, the general kinetic stability formalism can be integrated to find a closed form for the response of electron number density. The adiabatic response operator is shown to be self-adjoint. Computation of its eigenvalues proves the constant-density electrons/thermal ions system in POPS to be mostly stable to ion-electron electrostatic modes. Unstable modes are avoided unless central electrons have an extremely small energy spread. These results may also be useful for the consideration of gravitational and beam systems.},
 author = {Barnes, Daniel C. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Finn, J. M.},
 year = {2002},
 title = {Equilibrium and low-frequency stability of a uniform density, collisionless, spherical Vlasov system},
 pages = {4448--4464},
 volume = {9},
 number = {11},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1510667}
}


@inproceedings{Barnouin.1990,
 author = {Barnouin, Olivier and Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Gu, Y. and Hochberg, T.},
 title = {Ion Guns for Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Device},
 pages = {2138},
 volume = {35},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1990}
}


@phdthesis{Bas.2018,
 author = {Bas, Alers},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Determining a more efficient stalk design for an IEC device using field and particle simulations},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Bauer.2000,
 author = {Bauer, T. H. and Wigeland, R. A.},
 title = {An innovative accelerator-driven inertial electrostatic confinement device using converging ion beams},
 pages = {ICONE-8688},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ICONE 8},
 year = {2000}
}


@article{Baxter.1982,
 abstract = {In 1967, R. L. Hirsch [J. Appl. Phys. 38, 4522 (1967)] reported neutron production rates of 1010 neutrons per second from an electrostatic inertial confinement device. The device consisted of six ion guns injecting deuterium or a mixture of deuterium and tritium ions into an evacuated cathode chamber at 30-150 keV. No previous theoretical model for this experiment has adequately explained the observed neutron fluxes. A new model that includes the effects of charge exchange and ionization in the ion guns is analyzed. This model predicts three main features of the observed neutron flux: Neutron output proportional to gun current, neutron production localized at the center of the evacuated chamber, and neutron production decreasing with increasing neutral background gas density. Previous analysis modelled the ion guns as being monoenergetic. In this study, the ion gun output is modelled as a mixture of ions and fast neutrals with energies ranging from zero to the maximum gun energy. Using this theoretical model, a survey of the possible operating parameters indicates that the device was probably operated at or near the most efficient combined values of voltage and background pressure. Applications of the theory to other devices are discussed.},
 author = {Baxter, D. C. and Stuart, G. W.},
 year = {1982},
 title = {The effect of charge exchange on ion guns and an application to inertial- electrostatic confinement devices},
 keywords = {Ion sources;NUCLEAR ENERGY - Fusion Reactions},
 pages = {4597--4601},
 volume = {53},
 number = {7},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.331309}
}


@phdthesis{BecerraToledo.2014,
 author = {{Becerra Toledo}, G. E.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Analysis of Fast Neutral Particles in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Devices},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Bercovici.2014,
 author = {Bercovici, Benjamin},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Experimental and Numerical Validation of Ion Extractor Grids},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc. Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Bernards.2014,
 abstract = {Fusors are used worldwide both for research purposes and as a viable neutron source. One of the main components is a highly transparent grid. The efficiency of the fusor depends on the transparency of its grid. The effective transparency however deviates from the geometric transparency, and cannot be calculated analytically. The goal of this project is to find the effective transparency of the fusors star-mode from an electrostatic point of view and optimize the grid to maximize the transparency. This is mainly done with Comsol models. Special attention is given to describe the grid as an Einzel lens, as the theory behind it might also apply to the fusor. Comsol models are made for various grids, including among others the 9 ring grid commonly used in fusors, a model including the high voltage stalk, Einzel lens models and a voltage parameterization. Results show the effective transparency is smaller than the geometric transparency in all cases. It is however still possible to optimize the grid. The optimal transparent grid seems to be directly linked to the size of the holes in the grid, which also gives the grid a higher steady-state factor that has not been included in calculating the transparency. The voltage across the grid seems to have no effect on its transparency. Including a voltage stalk in the simulation greatly reduces the effective transparency, so measures to decrease its effect are desirable.},
 author = {Bernards, Mathijn},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Optimizing the fusor grid transparency using Comsol simulations},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@article{Bhattacharjee.2019,
 abstract = {An experiment on the formation of virtual electrode and ion sheath characteristics has been carried out in a hot cathode discharge plasma produced inside a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device. The plasma parameters such as electron temperature and plasma density are evaluated by using a Langmuir probe. Transition from a single potential well to multiple potential wells, i.e., virtual electrodes inside the cathode grid, is observed when the bias voltage applied to the cathode is increased from -1000 to -5000 V. An emissive probe has been used for the measurement of plasma potential due to its greater accuracy than the conventional Langmuir probe. Ion sheath potential structures and presheath characteristics for different cathode potentials have been investigated using the emissive probe and are found to be consistent with the Debye sheath model. A detailed discussion on the obtained results has been presented in this paper. {\copyright} 2019 Author(s).},
 author = {Bhattacharjee, D. and Jigdung, D. and Buzarbaruah, N. and Mohanty, S. R. and Bailung, H.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Studies on virtual electrode and ion sheath characteristics in a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85073884390&doi=10.1063%2f1.5107471&partnerID=40&md5=8dcaad52eea7b7912e3f59db4f5245ae},
 keywords = {Cathode potential;Cathodes;Electric discharges;electron temperature;Emissive probe;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ions;Langmuir probes;Plasma density;Plasma parameter;Plasma potential;Plasma sheaths;Potential structure;Potential wells;Virtual electrode},
 volume = {26},
 number = {7},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5107471}
}


@article{Bhattacharjee.2020,
 abstract = {The kinetic analyses are quite important when it comes to understanding the particle behavior in any device as they start to deviate from a continuum nature. In the present study, kinetic simulations are performed using the particle-in-cell method to analyze the behavior of ions inside a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device which is being developed as a tabletop neutron source. Here, the lighter ions, like deuterium, are accelerated by applying an electrostatic field between the chamber wall (anode) and the cathode (cylindrical gridded wire), placed at the center of the device. The plasma potential profiles obtained from the simulated results indicate the formation of multiple potential well structures inside the cathode grid depending upon the applied cathode potential (from-1 to-5 kV). The ion density at the core region of the device is found to be of the order of 1016m-3, which closely resembles the experimental observations. Spatial variation of ion energy distribution function has been measured in order to observe the characteristics of ions at different cathode voltages. Finally, the simulated results are compared and found to be in good agreement with the experimental profiles. The present analysis can serve as a reference guide to optimize the technological parameters of the discharge process in IECF devices. {\copyright} 2020 American Physical Society.},
 author = {Bhattacharjee, D. and Buzarbaruah, N. and Mohanty, S. R. and Adhikari, S.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Kinetic characteristics of ions in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85097581256&doi=10.1103%2fPhysRevE.102.063205&partnerID=40&md5=02f88a2a30e8a64dac611b7f0325122b},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Distribution functions;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion energy distribution functions;Ions;Kinetic characteristics;Kinetic simulation;Kinetics;Neutron sources;Particle in cell method;Plasma simulation;Spatial variations;Technological parameters},
 volume = {102},
 number = {6},
 issn = {24700045},
 journal = {Physical Review E},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.102.063205}
}


@article{Bhattacharjee.2021,
 abstract = {Table-top neutron/x-ray sources are of great interest for uses in neutron activation analyses, in neutron/x-ray radiography, and also in medical applications. Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) is a multiple neutron source that can emit neutrons, protons, x rays, etc., as basic products when operated in both continuous and pulsed modes. In this work, D-D neutrons are produced in the steady-state mode using a cylindrical IECF device. The neutron production rate has been optimized by using cathodes having different dimensions and geometrical transparencies. The maximum neutron production rate is found to be approaching 107n/s, using a cathode having eight grid wires and a diameter of 3 cm. The neutrons are successfully used for neutron activation analysis of materials containing explosive elements. X-ray spectrum having a wide range of photon energies (30-70 keV) has been detected from this device while operated in the continuous mode. X-ray radiography of high density objects has also been performed and reported for the first time using the cylindrical IECF source with negative polarity of the central grid in this paper. {\copyright} 2021 Author(s).},
 author = {Bhattacharjee, D. and Buzarbaruah, N. and Mohanty, S. R.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Neutron and x-ray emission from a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device and their applications},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85111967910&doi=10.1063%2f5.0052488&partnerID=40&md5=640a2eedd56598c0f0c8fdbb478ca43a},
 keywords = {D-D neutrons;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutron production rates;Pulsed mode;Steady state mode;Table-top;X-ray emission},
 volume = {130},
 number = {5},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0052488}
}


@phdthesis{Black.1971,
 author = {Black, W. M.},
 year = {1971},
 title = {Potential Well Formation in an Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{The Pennsylvania State University}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Black.1974,
 author = {Black, W. M. and Klevans, Edward H.},
 year = {1974},
 title = {Theory of potential--well formation in an electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1663622},
 pages = {502--2511},
 volume = {45},
 number = {6},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1663622}
}


@article{Black.1974b,
 author = {Black, W. M. and Robinson, James W.},
 year = {1974},
 title = {Measuring rotationally symmetric potential profiles with an electron--beam probe},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1663621},
 pages = {2497--2501},
 volume = {45},
 number = {6},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1663621}
}


@article{Black.1974d,
 abstract = {A theoretical model is developed to describe the behavior of an ion--injection electrostatic confinement device. It is assumed that there is a shallow potential well in the center. Distribution functions, which are consistent with atomic processes occurring and with mechanisms leading to particle angular momentum, are obtained for ions and electrons. Using these distribution functions, Poisson's equation is solved to obtain potential and density profiles. By varying the experimental parameters, the conditions needed to go from a shallow potential well to a deep potential well are studied. The most important problems are found to be nonspherical focusing through grid construction asymmetry, and neutralization by electrons. Deeper wells are produced by increasing ion perveance, improving spherical symmetry, and reducing pressure.},
 author = {Black, W. M. and Klevans, E. H.},
 year = {1974},
 title = {Theory of potential--well formation in an electrostatic confinement device},
 pages = {2502--2511},
 volume = {45},
 number = {6},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1663622}
}


@article{Black.2021,
 abstract = {While the majority of fusion energy research is focused on magnetic confinement, there have been several alternative confinement methods aimed at the development of smaller and less expensive reactors. A number of these alternative reactors are based on a spherically convergent beam of recirculating ions and include designs such as inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC), multigrid IEC, and the periodically oscillating plasma sphere concept. Here, a fully time-dependent GPU-based Vlasov solver was developed in order to study these spherically convergent devices. This code solves the Vlasov equation for a spherically symmetric system using a finite-volume method with a modified flux to account for electrode transparency. The solver accounts for secondary electron emission, interactions between the charged particles, and collisional effects such as ionization and charge exchange. This code was used to investigate a system similar to the ion-injected device described by Hirsch (see [R. L. Hirsch, J. Appl. Phys. 38, 4522 (1967)10.1063/1.1709162]), who had reported a neutron production rate for deuterium-deuterium reactions in the range of 106to107 neutrons per second, which was attributed to the formation of a virtual electrode structure near the center of the chamber. Attempts to reproduce this experiment [B. J. Egle, Ph.D. thesis, 2010] yielded similar fusion rates, though the majority of the reactions were found not to occur near the center of the chamber. The results of this Vlasov solver, considering only beam-beam and beam-background fusion reactions, show that beam-background reactions would be dominant in such an ion-injected device. This result is consistent with work by Baxter and Stuart, who proposed a simplified steady-state Boltzmann model. However, the result of both models are inconsistent with the experimental results, which indicate a higher neutron production rate, and an inverse pressure scaling trend. It is shown that the higher experimental rates may be explained by beam-target fusion between the ion beam and deuterium embedded on the inner surface of the cathode. {\copyright} 2021 American Physical Society.},
 author = {Black, Jeffrey and Wood-Thanan, M. and Maroni, A. and Sanchez, E.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Study of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion using a finite-volume scheme for the one-dimensional Vlasov equation},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85102411868&doi=10.1103%2fPhysRevE.103.023212&partnerID=40&md5=29c683e3fe1ee251d2e8d0403c955cf6},
 keywords = {Charge transfer;Deuterium;Deuterium deuteriums;Electrodes;Electrostatics;Finite volume method;Finite volume schemes;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;ion beams;Ions;Magnetic confinement;Neutron production rates;Periodically oscillating plasma sphere;Plasma interactions;Plasma oscillations;Secondary electron emissions;Secondary emission;Vlasov equation},
 volume = {103},
 number = {2},
 issn = {24700045},
 journal = {Physical Review E},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.103.023212}
}


@phdthesis{Black.2022,
 abstract = {While most of the fusion energy research is focused on magnetic confinement, there have been several alternative confinement methods aimed at the development of smaller and less expensive reactors. A number of these devices utilize a spherically convergent beam of recirculating ions, a technique known as inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC). This study looks at several aspects of IEC devices, including measurements of the fusion rate of an IEC device with a wire mesh electrode cathode, and a solid titanium cathode. In addition, several computational studies were performed to explore the possibilities for IEC fusion. These include development of a 1D-1P finite volume solver for the time dependent Vlasov equation, a steady-state Vlasov model, and a 1D-3V particle-in-cell (PIC) model.



The computational models were applied to a system similar to the ion-injected device described by Hirsch who reported a neutron production rate for deuterium-deuterium reactions in the range of 106 to 107 neutrons per second. The results of these studies were qualitatively consistent with work by Baxter and Stuart, though a new numerical scheme for Baxter and Stuart's model is presented here which puts all three computational models into quantitative agreement. It was found that these numerical models did not exactly fit Hirsch's results, and evidence is presented that the fusion rates reported may have been due to embedded-ion target fusion at the inner surface of the cathode.



In addition to studying Hirsch's devices, the 1D-3V PIC simulation was coupled to a specialized power supply model to investigate an IEC discharge configured as an active element of a feedback triode circuit. This concept can be attributed to Doug Coulter, who made claims of a greatly enhanced fusion rate with such a configuration. It is shown here that this configuration, which bears similarities to a chaotic oscillator, can be driven to produce momentarily enhanced fusion rates.},
 author = {Black, Jeffrey},
 year = {2022},
 title = {Possibilities for Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion},
 url = {https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/6252/},
 school = {{Portland State University}},
 doi = {10.15760/etd.8111},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Blackhall.2007,
 abstract = {An electric thruster is presented that makes use of the properties of an asymmetric hollow cathode glow discharge that ejects a collimated plume of high velocity neutral atoms. Ions are accelerated electrostatically outwards from within the asymmetric hollow cathode and undergo charge exchange with the background gas resulting in energetic neutrals being ejected, thus producing thrust. This thruster is entirely self-contained allowing thrust generation and beam neutralization within the discharge. Doppler spectroscopy was used to determine the speed of atomic hydrogen in the plume and was found to produce a specific impulse greater than 3 $\times$ 104 s for applied voltages and powers of the order of 5 kV and 100 W, respectively. An estimate of the thrust of 1 mN for a power input in the order of 1 kW was obtained from previously measured ion densities in similar discharges. This work builds on recent work associated with the ejection of high velocity neutrals from hollow cathode discharges. The simple but effective design of the thruster has the potential for large thrust densities as well as successful long term operation.},
 author = {Blackhall, Lachlan and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2007},
 title = {A simple electric thruster based on ion charge exchange},
 pages = {2491},
 volume = {40},
 number = {8},
 issn = {0022-3727},
 journal = {Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1088/0022-3727/40/8/011}
}


@proceedings{Bollinger.1999,
 year = {1999},
 title = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 number = {498},
 editor = {Bollinger, John J.}
}


@article{Bolukdemir.2013,
 abstract = {In this study, Turkey's first low pressure inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device, constructed at the Saraykoy Nuclear Research and Training Center (SNRTC-IEC), is introduced and the first results are reported. This device was designed for neutronic fusion studies in terms of D-D reaction. The SNRTC-IEC device consists of spherical chamber 300 mm in diameter and a grid-type spherical cathode in which high negative voltage is applied at the center of chamber. The outer surface of the device held at ground potential has 10 ports to connect the vacuum pump, high voltage load, residual gas analyzer, ion sources and other peripherals. Cathode voltage is 85 kV and it is particularly emphasized that the SNRTC-IEC device is studied at low pressure (1-10 $\times$ 10-4 mbar). The maximum total neutron production rate is measured at around 2.4 $\times$ 104 neutrons per second for the medium grid cathode. {\copyright} 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York.},
 author = {B{\"o}l{\"u}kdemir, Arife Seda and Akg{\"u}n, Y. and Alacakir, A.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Preliminary results of experimental studies from low pressure inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84885309111&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-013-9607-z&partnerID=40&md5=e7ce3c914f393d227ebc52bb211d192d},
 keywords = {Cathode voltages;Cathodes;D-D reaction;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Fusion;Fusion reactions;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ion sources;neutron production rate;Neutron production rates;Nuclear research;Plasma interactions;Residual gas analyzers;Spherical cathodes;Training centers},
 pages = {561--565},
 volume = {32},
 number = {5},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-013-9607-z}
}


@phdthesis{Bolukdemir.2013b,
 author = {B{\"o}l{\"u}kdemir, Arife Seda},
 year = {2013},
 title = {The construction and experimental studies of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device in low pressure},
 school = {{Gazi University}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Bolukdemir.2018,
 author = {B{\"o}l{\"u}kdemir, Arife Seda and Yasatekin, Bet{\"u}l and Cosgun, Emre and Kilic, Ihsan and Olgac, Yesim and ALACAKIR, Ali},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Results of experimental studies at cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tjns/issue/37845/419062},
 pages = {7--12},
 volume = {30},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Turkish Journal of Nuclear Sciences}
}


@article{Bondarenko.2001,
 author = {Bondarenko, B. D.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Role played by O A Lavrent'ev in the formulation of the problem and the initiation of research into controlled nuclear fusion in the USSR},
 url = {http://ufn.ru/ru/articles/2001/8/q/},
 pages = {886},
 volume = {171},
 number = {8},
 journal = {Uspekhi Fizicheskih Nauk},
 doi = {10.3367/UFNr.0171.200108q.0886}
}


@article{Boris.2007,
 author = {Boris, David R. and Ma, Zhenqiang and Yuan, Hao-chih and Ashley, Robert P. and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Dickerson, Clayton and Allen, Todd},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Direct Conversion of High Energy Protons to Electricity Using a Solid-State Pin Junction Diode},
 url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.13182/FST07-A1637},
 pages = {1066--1069},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1637}
}


@article{Boris.2008,
 abstract = {The ion species composition in the source region of inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices plays an important role in the atomic and molecular physics processes in the device and in the resulting energy spectrum of the fast ions and the neutron production rate. A zero dimensional rate equation model for the ion species composition in the source region of IEC devices is presented and compared with experimental measurements on the Wisconsin IEC device [J. F. Santarius, G. L. Kulcinski, R. P. Ashley, Fusion Sci. Tech. 47, 1238 (2005)]. The ion species composition is measured using an ion acoustic wave diagnostic; the results are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions. Both the theory and the experimental results show that D3+ ions are the majority species in the source region. {\copyright} 2008 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Boris, David R. and Emmert, Gilbert A.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Composition of the source region plasma in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-50849102272&doi=10.1063%2f1.2965148&partnerID=40&md5=4fc5e5d9184fd778b3f30b080a9a55d3},
 keywords = {Acoustics;Atomic physics;Atomic spectroscopy;Electrolysis;Electrostatics;Ion species;Ions;Mathematical models;Plasma waves;Source regions;Transport properties},
 volume = {15},
 number = {8},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2965148}
}


@article{Boris.2009,
 abstract = {A magnetic deflection-energy analyzer and Faraday trap diagnostic have been used to make measurements of divergent deuterium anion flow in the inertial electrostatic confinement experiment at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (UW-IEC), a device to confine high-energy light ions in a spherically symmetric electrostatic potential well. Deuterium anion current densities as high as 8.5 \textgreek{m}A/ cm2 have been measured at the wall of the UW-IEC device, 40 cm from the surface of the device cathode with a detector assembly of admittance area 0.7 cm2. Energy spectra obtained using a magnetic deflection-energy analyzer diagnostic indicate the presence of D2-, and D- ions produced through thermal electron attachment near the device cathode, as well as D- ions produced via charge-transfer processes between the anode and cathode of the device. {\copyright} 2009 The American Physical Society.},
 author = {Boris, David R. and Alderson, Eric C. and {Becerra Toledo}, G. E. and Donovan, David C. and Egle, Brian J. and Emmert, Gilbert A. and Garrison, Lauren M. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Schuff, C. M. and Zenobia, Samuel J.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Deuterium anions in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-70349974401&doi=10.1103%2fPhysRevE.80.036408&partnerID=40&md5=c682c6a3069ce60a9e489018b5871611},
 keywords = {Detector Assembly;Deuterium;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatic potentials;Electrostatics;Energy analyzer;Energy spectra;High energy;High energy physics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Light ions;Magnetic deflection;Negative ions;Spectroscopy;Thermal electron attachment;Thermionic emission;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 volume = {80},
 number = {3},
 issn = {15393755},
 journal = {Physical Review E - Statistical, Nonlinear, and Soft Matter Physics},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.80.036408}
}


@inproceedings{Boris.2009b,
 author = {Boris, David R. and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 title = {Negative ions in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-70350702550&doi=10.1109%2fPLASMA.2009.5227375&partnerID=40&md5=fee0841a3ad41a8baaef4d3a74839df9},
 isbn = {978-1-4244-2617-1},
 booktitle = {2009 IEEE 36th International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS)},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.2009.5227375}
}


@phdthesis{Boris.2009c,
 author = {Boris, David R.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Novel Diagnostic Approaches to Characterizing the Performance of the Wisconsin Intertial Electrostatic Confinement Plasma},
 url = {http://rigel.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm1366.pdf},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Boris.2010,
 abstract = {Deuterium fusion reactant energy spectra have been measured using a diagnostic that records the Doppler shift imparted to charged particle fusion products of the D(d,p)T reaction by the center-of-mass velocity of the deuterium reactants. This diagnostic, known as the fusion ion Doppler shift diagnostic (FIDO) measures fast deuterium energy spectra in the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) experiment at the University of Wisconsin-Madison { Santarius [Fusion Sci. Technol. 47, 1238 (2005)] }, a device to confine high energy light ions in a spherically symmetric, electrostatic potential well. This article details the first measurements of the fusion reactant energy spectra in an IEC device as well as the design and principles of operation of the FIDO diagnostic. Scaling of reactant energy spectra with a variety of experimental parameters have been explored. {\copyright} 2010 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Boris, David R. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Donovan, David C. and Piefer, Gregory R.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Measuring D(d,p)T fusion reactant energy spectra with Doppler shifted fusion products},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77954202636&doi=10.1063%2f1.3437629&partnerID=40&md5=a02c9ea41abe3c28ec9c4c4eb2452bb9},
 keywords = {Center-of-mass;Deuterium;Deuterium fusion;Diagnostic products;Doppler;Doppler effect;Doppler shifts;Electric furnaces;Electrostatic potentials;Electrostatics;Energy spectra;Experimental parameters;Fusion products;High energy light;High energy physics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Reactant energies;Spectroscopy;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 volume = {107},
 number = {12},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3437629}
}


@article{BowdenReid.2018,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement is a method of producing nuclear fusion in which concentric spherical electrodes are used to accelerate ions to fusion relevant energies. Fusion events are generally attributed to collisions between accelerated ions and neutral gas molecules in the centre of the device, with ion-grid collisions considered detrimental. In this paper, we present data that indicate that collisions between ions and neutral gas molecules adsorbed on the grid surface may, in fact, contribute significantly to the observed fusion rate in deuterium fuelled systems. When operating in the 1 $\times$ 10-4-1 $\times$ 10-3Torr, V $\leq$ 40 kV regime, fusion on the grid surface is found to contribute up to 80{\%} of the measured fusion rate, as determined from hysteresis effects between the fusion rate and system pressure. Surface fusion measurements were also carried out for a selection of cathode materials, with graphite found to produce a fusion rate that is an order of magnitude greater than the highest performing metal targets. {\copyright} 2018 Author(s).},
 author = {Bowden-Reid, Richard and Khachan, Joe and Wulfk{\"u}hler, Jan-Philipp and Tajmar, Martin},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Evidence for surface fusion in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85056257641&doi=10.1063%2f1.5053616&partnerID=40&md5=7cacdba9f7fcd3c297cab6745e57548a},
 keywords = {Accelerated ions;Cath-ode materials;Cathodes;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Hysteresis effect;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Molecules;nuclear fusion;Spherical electrodes;System pressure},
 volume = {25},
 number = {11},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5053616}
}


@phdthesis{BowdenReid.2019,
 author = {Bowden-Reid, Richard},
 year = {2019},
 title = {An Experimental Study of Gridded and Virtual Cathode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Systems},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{BowdenReid.2021,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices use concentric electrodes to accelerate ions to sufficient energies to produce nuclear fusion. In a previous publication, we have indicated that, when operating at low power, fusion events largely occur when high energy ions impact neutral molecules that are adsorbed on the cathode surface. The selection of the cathode material therefore plays an important role in determining the absolute fusion output of an IEC machine. A study is presented in which a pair of matching IEC cathodes were constructed from 316 stainless steel and graphite and the fusion characteristics of the grids examined as a function of system pressure and discharge power. Graphite is shown to be an excellent cathode material, producing fusion rates 2.2-4 times that of stainless steel. Due to the excellent deuterium trapping properties of graphite, it is likely this enhancement factor will continue to grow as operating power is further increased. {\copyright} 2021 Author(s).},
 author = {Bowden-Reid, Richard and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2021},
 title = {An inertial electrostatic confinement fusion system based on graphite},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85103765943&doi=10.1063%2f5.0038766&partnerID=40&md5=27ba2b83e1820be0623c0e07c531e6cc},
 keywords = {316 stainless steel;Cathode materials;Cathodes;Deuterium trapping;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Enhancement factor;Fusion characteristics;Graphite;High-energy ions;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutral molecules},
 volume = {28},
 number = {4},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0038766}
}


@article{BowdenReid.2021b,
 abstract = {The magnetically confined virtual cathode (MCVC) is an approach to nuclear fusion in which multipole magnetic traps are used to confine a dense cloud of electrons and thereby establish a deep electrostatic potential well for the heating and trapping of ions. We describe preliminary studies conducted in MCVC-0, a two-coil, biconic cusp trap, in which high impedance, floating Langmuir probe measurements were used to characterize the electrostatic potential. Contrary to previous studies in six-coil {\textquotedbl}polywell{\textquotedbl}devices, no potential well formation was observed and this is attributed to the particular configuration of magnetic fields within the new device. A computational model was developed, based on the anisotropic electrical conductivity of discharge plasmas within magnetic fields, and shown to accurately describe the obtained experimental results. Electrostatic boundaries that were intersected by magnetic field lines were found to strongly dominate the form of the electric potential within the device, with strong implications for the design of future MCVC/polywell machines. {\copyright} 2021 Author(s).},
 author = {Bowden-Reid, Richard and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Electric potential in a magnetically confined virtual cathode fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85103787684&doi=10.1063%2f5.0040792&partnerID=40&md5=267fd5f13ce89e04a9b7a5dfdae6a9e5},
 keywords = {Anisotropic electrical conductivity;Cathodes;Computational model;Discharge plasma;Electric discharges;Electric lines;Electric potential;Electrostatic potential wells;Electrostatic potentials;Langmuir probe measurements;Langmuir probes;Magnetic field line;Magnetic fields;Magnetoplasma;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {28},
 number = {4},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0040792}
}


@inproceedings{Bromley.1995,
 author = {Bromley, Blair P. and Miley, George H. and Nebel, Richard A. and Ling, Kuok-Mee},
 title = {PDS1 simulations of IEC fusion devices},
 pages = {206},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1995.531735}
}


@inproceedings{Bromley.1995b,
 author = {Bromley, Blair P. and Ling, Kuok-Mee and Miley, George H. and Nebel, Richard A.},
 title = {PIC-MCC Simulations of the IEC Fusion Device},
 pages = {1736/4Q.33},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1995}
}


@inproceedings{Bromley.1996,
 abstract = {Modelling studies of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC){\^{}}1 fusion device with D-T fuel have been carried out to determine optimum operational parameters. Results will guide design/operation of IEC devices for near-term low-flux (10{\^{}}8 n/s) neutron generation, and for planned high-current, high-flux (7*10{\^{}}12 n/s) devices. Prior calculations of the equilibrium electron temperature and ion upscattering loss rate in a spherically symmetric electrostatic well have been reported.{\^{}}2-5 The present study extends these analyses using two classes of ions: ``passing'' ions trapped in ``microchannels'' by the accelerating grid field and ``core-confined'' ions trapped in the central plasma core. Q-values are obtained as a function of key parameters. 1. G.H. Miley et al., AIP Conf. Proc. 229, AIP Press, 675-689 (1994). 2. Rider, Phys. Plasmas 2, 1-20 (1995). 3. T.N. Tiouririne, D.C. Barnes, Bult. APS, 40(2), 1665-1666 (1995). 4. W.M. Nevins, Phys. Plasmas 2(10), 3804-3819 (1995). 5. EMC2, Subcontract 9-XG2-Y5957-1 Final Report, Dec. 31, 1994. {\^{}}** Supported in part by INEL URC, Contract CC-S-622904-002-C.},
 author = {Bromley, Blair P. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Double Trap Confinement in IEC Devices},
 pages = {9R.03},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1996}
}


@phdthesis{Bromley.1997,
 author = {Bromley, Blair P.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Approximate Modeling of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Cylindrical Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Bromley.1998,
 author = {Bromley, Blair P. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Approximate Modeling of Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion Neutron Generator},
 pages = {191--192},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on the Numerical Simulation of Plasmas},
 year = {1998}
}


@phdthesis{Bromley.2001,
 author = {Bromley, Blair P.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Computational Modelling of the Axial-Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Neutron Generator},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Bromley.2002,
 abstract = {The background deuterium neutral gas pressure is a major operational parameter affecting the physics of the ionized gas discharge in the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) axial-cylindrical fusion neutron generator device (C-Device). There is uncertainty in its actual value in previous experiments. The cylindrical hollow IEC modeling program (CHIMP) computer code is a particle-in-cell, Monte Carlo-collision (PIC-MCC) model that includes ionization and secondary electron emission processes and is used to give preliminary results for the ionized gas physics behavior and neutron generation in the C-Device for a range of pressure calibration factors.},
 author = {Bromley, Blair P.},
 year = {2002},
 title = {Pressure sensitivity studies of an electrostatic fusion neutron device using a particle-in-cell model},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-33748445487&doi=10.13182%2fFST02-A197&partnerID=40&md5=bbab014ecea7a4f1439ae88072c716d8},
 keywords = {Cylindrical hollow IEC modeling program (CHIMP);Electric fields;Electron emission;Fusion reactions;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ionization;Mathematical models;Monte Carlo methods;Neutron generator;Neutron generators;Neutrons;Parameter estimation;Particle-in-cell;Pressure effects;Sensitivity analysis},
 pages = {24--31},
 volume = {41},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST02-A197}
}


@phdthesis{BuilthWilliams.2020,
 author = {Builth-Williams, Joseph Douglas},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Geometrically and Reflectively Enhanced Embedded Fusion},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Burton.2002,
 author = {Burton, Rodney and Momota, Hiromo and Richardson, N. and Coventry, Matt and Shaban, Yasser R. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {High performance manned interplanetary space vehicle using D-3He Inertial Electrostatic Fusion},
 pages = {819--827},
 booktitle = {AIP Conf. Proc.},
 year = {2002},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1449807}
}


@inproceedings{Burton.2003,
 abstract = {A preliminary system design, Fusion Ship II, is presented for a high performance 750 MWthrust manned space vehicle in the 500 metric ton class. Fusion Ship II is based on Inertial Electrostatic Fusion (IEC), giving round trip times to the outer planets of 1--2 years. An IEC is chosen because it simplifies structure results in a very high power to weight ratio. The fusion reactor uses D--3He fuel that generates 14.7--MeV protons as the primary reaction product. The propulsion system uses direct conversion of proton energy to electricity, avoiding the thermalization of the working fluid to maximize efficiency. Design calculations are described for the principle system components (crew compartment, crew shielding, avionics, fusion reactor modules, traveling wave direct energy converter, step--down transformer, rectifier, ion thruster, heat rejection radiators) along with vehicle trajectory calculations. Since unburned fusion fuels are recycled rather than exhausted with the propellant, problems of fuel weight and preservation of 3He are minimized. The 750--MWthrust propulsion system is based on NSTAR--extrapolated Argon ion thrusters operating at a specific impulse of 35,000 seconds and a total thrust of 4,370 N. Round trip travel time for a Jupiter mission \textgreek{D}V of 202,000 m/s is then 363 days. This design requires that an IEC reactor with a proton energy gain (power in 14.7--MeV protons/input electric power) of 9 or better is achieved. Extrapolation of present laboratory--scale IEC experiments to such conditions is possible theoretically, but faces several open issues including stability under high--density plasma operation.},
 author = {Burton, R. L. and Momota, H. and Richardson, N. and Shaban, Y. and Miley, G. H.},
 title = {Fusion Ship II-- A Fast Manned Interplanetary Space Vehicle Using Inertial Electrostatic Fusion},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {553--562},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1541339}
}


@misc{Bussard.,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {Final Report: DARPA/BMI Study of Advanced Energy Sources and Systems: New Alternatives for Tactical Applications (U), Volume I, A New Method for Control of Charged Particle Interactions (U)},
 number = {PSR1709; Contract No. DAAH01840005}
}


@misc{Bussard.1988,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Jellison, G. P. and McClellan, G. E.},
 date = {1988},
 title = {Preliminary Research Studies of a New Method for Control of Charged Particle Interactions. PSR Report. Final Report},
 number = {DNA001-87-C-0052},
 institution = {{Pacific Sierra Research}}
}


@patent{Bussard.1989,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1989},
 title = {Method and Apparatus for Controlling Charged Particles},
 number = {US 4,826,646}
}


@article{Bussard.1990,
 abstract = {Fusion rocket engines are analyzed as electric propulsion systems, with propulsion thrust-power-to-input-power ratio (the thrust-power {\textquotedbl}gain,{\textquotedbl} Gt) much greater than unity. Gain values of conventional (solar, fission) electric propulsion systems are always quite small (e.g., Gt {\textless} 0.8). With these, {\textquotedbl}high-thrust{\textquotedbl} interplanetary flight is not possible, because their system acceleration (at) capabilities are always less than the local gravitational acceleration. In contrast, gain values 50-100 times higher are found for some fusion concepts, which offer {\textquotedbl}high-thrust{\textquotedbl} flight capability. One performance example shows a 53.3 day (34.4 powered; 18.9 coast), one-way transit time with 19{\%} payload for a single-stage Earth/Mars vehicle. Another shows the potential for high-acceleration (at equals 0.55 Go) flight in Earth/Moon space.},
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1990},
 title = {Fusion as electric propulsion},
 url = {http://doi.aiaa.org/10.2514/3.23257},
 pages = {567--574},
 volume = {6},
 number = {5},
 issn = {07484658},
 journal = {Journal of Propulsion and Power},
 doi = {10.2514/3.23257}
}


@article{Bussard.1991,
 abstract = {A new concept for inertial-electrostatic spherical colliding beam fusion (POLYWELL) is based on the use of magneto- hydrodynamically stable quasi-spherical polyhedral magnetic fields to contain energetic electrons that are injected to form a negative potential well that is capable of ion confinement. A simple phenomenological model for this system shows that 1. It is grossly stable against internal and global perturbations by virtue of the effects of both the external magnetic fields (typically 1 to 5 kG) and the large central azimuthally isotropic power flow due to conservation of transverse momentum in the recirculating ion flow. 2. Electron current recirculation ratios must be of the order of 105 for net fusion power operation, which is found to be possible within limits set by energy-exchange self-collisions. 3. Losses due to bremsstrahlung and synchrotron radiation can be kept small relative to fusion power generation, and ion energy Maxwellianization by two-body collisional upscattering can be kept to acceptable levels by operation at sufficiently large well depth. 4. System gains of 10 to 100 seem possible from several fusion fuels. 5. No zero-order impediments have yet been found to this highly speculative concept; feasibility must be determined by study of more complex and detailed phenomena.},
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1991},
 title = {Some physics considerations of magnetic inertial-electrostatic confinement. A new concept for spherical converging-flow fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0026118930&doi=10.13182%2fFST91-A29364&partnerID=40&md5=9b9084e979ac17132e997940a319bb89},
 keywords = {Inertial confinement fusion;Magnetic fields;Magnetic Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement;Magnetohydrodynamics;Plasmas - Confinement;Spherical Converging-Flow Fusion},
 pages = {273--293},
 volume = {19},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST91-A29364}
}


@patent{Bussard.19910201,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1991/02/01},
 title = {A new physical process, method and apparatus for creating and controlling nuclear fusion reactions},
 url = {https://lens.org/145-923-905-786-09X},
 number = {EP 0441261 A2}
}


@misc{Bussard.1991b,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Krall, Nicholas Anthony},
 date = {1991},
 title = {Electron Leakage through Magnetic Cusps in the Polywell Confinement Geometry},
 number = {EMC2-01-91-02/AD-A257 648},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1991c,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 date = {1991},
 title = {Electron Transit Time in Central Virtual Anode Wells},
 number = {EMC2-0291-03},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1991d,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1991},
 title = {Core Collisional Upscattering and Loss Time},
 number = {EMC2-1090-03},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1991e,
 abstract = {The degree to which bremmstrahlung radiation constrains or limits system$\backslash$nperformance depends on the energy E. of the electrons which are the principal$\backslash$nsource of this radiation, through their collisions with in-situ ions. This is true in those cases in which the electron energy is such that the electron speed exceeds the ion speed, at which condition the ions can be regarded as stationary targets for the electrons. If the electron energy is so low that the electron speed is comparable to the ion speed, then the ion energy must also be taken into account in computation of bremmstrahlung.},
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 date = {1991},
 title = {Bremsstrahlung Radiation Losses in Polywell Systems},
 number = {AD-A-257646/0/XAB},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1991f,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 title = {Phenomenological Modelling of PolywellTM/SCIF Multi-Cusp Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement System},
 pages = {2319},
 volume = {36},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1991}
}


@misc{Bussard.1991g,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1991},
 title = {Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron radiation losses in polywell systems},
 number = {AD-A-257895/3/XAB; EMC-2-1291-02},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1991h,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1991},
 title = {Ion and Electron Flow and Some Critical Radii in Polywell Systems},
 number = {EMC2-0791-02},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@patent{Bussard.1992,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1992},
 title = {Method and Apparatus for Creating and Controlling Nuclear Fusion Reactions},
 number = {US 5,160,695}
}


@misc{Bussard.1992b,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Electron Current, Beta Limit Line Operation and Power Balance in WB Mode},
 number = {EMC2-0891-02},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1992c,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Phenomenological Modelling of Polywell/SCIF Multicusp Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Systems},
 number = {EMC2-1191-02/AD-A257 944},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1992d,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Electron Recirculation in Electrostatic Multicusp Systems: II One-Dimensional {\textquotedbl}Rollover{\textquotedbl} Wells},
 number = {EMC2-0791-04/AD-A257-942},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1992e,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Electron recirculation in electrostatic multicusp systems: I-Confinement and losses in simple power law wells},
 number = {EMC2-0491-03/AD-A257 647},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1992f,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Magnetic Field Energy in Polywell IEC Systems},
 number = {EMC2-0692-03},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1992g,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Collisional Equilibration},
 number = {EMC2-0890-03/AD-A257 686},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1992h,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {Ion-Acoustic Waves and Ion Wave Group Trapping in IEC Systems},
 pages = {1582},
 volume = {37},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1992}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1992i,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and King, Katherine E.},
 title = {Potential Density Distributions in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Systems},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the International Sherwood Fusion Theory Conference},
 year = {1992}
}


@misc{Bussard.1992j,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Effective Gyro Hole Loss Radius and Diagmagnetic Limit in Polywell Systems},
 number = {EMC2-0591-02/AD-A257 689},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1993,
 abstract = {Predicting the binding mode of flexible polypeptides to proteins is an important task that falls outside the domain of applicability of most small molecule and protein$-$protein docking tools. Here, we test the small molecule flexible ligand docking program Glide on a set of 19 non-\textgreek{a}-helical peptides and systematically improve pose prediction accuracy bynhancing Glide sampling for flexible polypeptides. In addition, scoring of the poses was improved by post-processing with physics-based implicit solvent MM- GBSA calculations. Using the best RMSD among the top 10 scoring poses as a metric, the success rate (RMSD $\leq$ 2.0 {\AA} for the interface backbone atoms) increased from 21{\%} with default Glide SP settings to 58{\%} with the enhanced peptide sampling and scoring protocol in the case of redocking to the native protein structure. This approaches the accuracy of the recently developed Rosetta FlexPepDock method (63{\%} success for these 19 peptides) while being over 100 times faster. Cross-docking was performed for a subset of cases where an unbound receptor structure was available, and in that case, 40{\%} of peptides were docked successfully. We analyze the results and find that the optimized polypeptide protocol is most accurate for extended peptides of limited size and number of formal charges, defining a domain of applicability for this approach.},
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {The QED engine system: Direct-electric fusion-powered rocket propulsion systems},
 pages = {1601--1612},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1993},
 doi = {10.1063/1.43058}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1993b,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Jameson, Lorin W.},
 title = {The QED Engine Spectrum: FusionElectric Propulsion for Air-Breathing to Interstellar Flight},
 pages = {93--2006},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 29th AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {1993}
}


@misc{Bussard.1993c,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1993},
 title = {IEC Study Report},
 number = {DOE/LANL 9-XG2-Y5957-1},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1993d,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1993},
 title = {Final Report}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1993e,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Jameson, Lorin W.},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic-Fusion from D to 3He: A Practical Strategy for Fusion Development},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2nd Wisconsin Symposium on Helium-3 and Fusion Power},
 year = {1993}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1993f,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Jameson, Lorin W. and {Froning, H. David, Jr.}},
 title = {The QED Engine: Fusion-Electric Propulsion for Cis-Oort/Quasi-Interstellar (QIS) Flight},
 pages = {IAA.4.1-93-708},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 44th International Astronautical Congress},
 year = {1993}
}


@article{Bussard.1994,
 abstract = {Performance scaling of fusion power sources shows that Maxwellian, magnetic, local-thermodynamic-equilibrium (MM/LTE) devices require much larger sizes and B fields than do electron-driven, inertial-electrostatic-confinement (EXL/IEC) systems for the same output. Basic economics analyses show that systems of either type must be small in size to be economically viable. This requires operation at high fusion power density and first-wall thermal fluxes; flux levels needed are well within those of practical power engineering experience. The EXL/IEC systems can satisfy these demands more readily than can MM/LTE systems. They can be operated to avoid particle thermalization, preserve ion core convergence, and yield a large power gain against losses (e.g., bremsstrahlung) for all fuels from deuterium-tritium to p-11B and 3He3He. Direct conversion of charged-particle energy, without arcing, is inherently straightforward in the quasi-spherical field geometry. If losses prove to be governed by classical physics phenomena rather than turbulent transport, all research and development (R{\&}D) from physics studies to power plants can be done at a single size ($\approx$3-m radius) and B field ($\approx$1.2 T, 12 kG); no scaling growth in size or field is required. Consequent R{\&}D costs and time scales are estimated to be {\&}lt;12 years and {\$}1 billion for development of prototype EXL/IEC fusion power systems. Research investment seems warranted in this small-scale alternative to large-scale MM/LTE systems.},
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Krall, Nicholas Anthony},
 year = {1994},
 title = {Inherent characteristics of fusion power systems: physics, engineering, and economics},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0028732389&doi=10.13182%2fFST94-A30317&partnerID=40&md5=2422c5a9b3f667308121b3ae4539972b},
 keywords = {Costs;Energy conversion;Fusion power systems;Fusion reactors;Industrial economics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Maxwellian magnetic local thermodynamic equilibrium devices;Nuclear engineering;Nuclear physics;Research and development management;Thermal flux;Thermodynamic equilibria},
 pages = {1326--1336},
 volume = {26},
 number = {4},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST94-A30317}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1994b,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Jameson, Lorin W. and El-Genk, Mohamed S. and Hoover, Mark D.},
 title = {Design Considerations for Clean QED Fusion Propulsion Systems},
 url = {https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2950138},
 pages = {1289--1296},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {1994},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2950138}
}


@misc{Bussard.1994c,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1994},
 title = {Preliminary study of Inertial-electrostatic-fusion (IEF) for electric utility power plants. Final report},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/10135574},
 number = {EPRI-TR-103394, ON: UN94008755; EMC2-0693-01},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@misc{Bussard.1994d,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1994},
 title = {Physics of IEC for Fusion Reactor Systems},
 number = {LANL Report 9-XG2-U5957-1},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@article{Bussard.1994e,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Krall, N. A.},
 year = {1994},
 title = {Comments on ``Ion Defocusing in Multicusp Plasma Confinement Systems''},
 pages = {228--229},
 volume = {25},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST94-A30275}
}


@article{Bussard.1995,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Jameson, Lorin W.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic-Fusion Propulsion Spectrum: Air-Breathing to Interstellar Flight},
 url = {https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/3.51434},
 pages = {365--372},
 volume = {11},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07484658},
 journal = {Journal of Propulsion and Power},
 doi = {10.2514/3.51434}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1997,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {System Technical and Economic Features of QED-engine Driven Space Transportation},
 pages = {AIAA 97-3071},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 33rd AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.1998,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and Froning, H. D.},
 title = {System/SubSystem Engineering Interface Considerations and R{\&}D Requirements for IEF/QED Engine Systems},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1998}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.2002,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {An advanced fusion energy system for outer-planet space propulsion},
 pages = {768--779},
 booktitle = {AIP Conf. Proc.},
 year = {2002},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1449800}
}


@patent{Bussard.20060927,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {2006/09/27},
 title = {Method and apparatus for controlling charged particles},
 url = {https://lens.org/086-019-661-949-118},
 number = {US 2011/0170647 A1}
}


@patent{Bussard.2008,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Method and Apparatus for Controlling Charged Particles}
}


@misc{Bussard.g,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Fusion Lifetime Limits on Ion Upscattering},
 number = {EMC2-0291-04/AD-A257 649},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@inproceedings{Bussard.l,
 abstract = {Success has been achieved from research and development work conducted since 1986 on a unique concept for creating and controlling nuclear fusion reactions, in an inertial-electrostatic fusion (IEF) device of special, quasi-spherical configuration. Final design insights were proven by experiment in Oct/Nov 2005, from which full-scale designs can be determined. This allows demonstration of full-scale, clean, nuclear fusion power systems, based on use of p+B11 -{\textgreater} 3 He4. This demonstration will require about {\$} 200 M (USD) over 5 years, with an IEF machine of 2.5-3 m in diameter, operated at over 100 MW. It will open the door to superformance, practical, economical spaceflight, as well as clean fusion power, and mark the end of dependence on fossil fuels. The main point of this paper is to present these results of EMC2's 20 years of study. This concept derives from early work (1960's) of P. T. Farnsworth and R. L. Hirsch (F/H), who used spherical screen grids biased to high potentials to energize and accelerate ions to the center, where fusion occurred. Ion collisions with grids gave unavoidable losses, limiting power gain to less than 0.001. The EMC2 device avoids these by using energetic electrons, trapped in a quasi-spherical polyhedral magnetic field, to generate a spherical electric potential well. Ions dropped into this well at its edge will accelerate towards its center increasing in density and kinetic energy, collide at high energy, and make fusion. By this unique design, the power loss problem is shifted from grid collision of ions (F/H) to that of electron transport losses across high B fields to the confining magnets. The two competing phenomena, power loss and fusion generation, are thus decoupled by the basic design approach, and each can be optimized separately. The concept was invented by Dr. R.W. Bussard in 1983, patented in 1989 (and lastly in 2006), and studied by EMC2 since 1986. Design studies of IEF-based space propulsion (AIAA Prop. Conf, 1993,97; IAC, Graz, 1994, Toulouse, 2001) show that this can yield engine systems whose thrust/mass ratio is 1000x higher for any given specific impulse (Isp), over a range of 1000 {\textless} Isp {\textless} 1E6 sec, than any other advanced propulsion means, with consequent 100x reduction in costs of spaceflight.},
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {The Advent of Clean Nuclear Fusion: Superperformance Space Power and Propulsion},
 url = {https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.IAC-06-D2.8.05},
 pages = {8105--8132},
 booktitle = {57th International Astronautical Congress},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.2514/6.IAC-06-D2.8.05}
}


@patent{BUSSARDROBERTW.19851029,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1985/10/29},
 title = {Method and apparatus for controlling charged particles},
 url = {https://lens.org/005-746-577-839-541},
 number = {US 4826646 A}
}


@patent{BUSSARDROBERTW.19900208,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1990/02/08},
 title = {METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CREATING AND CONTROLLING NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS},
 url = {https://lens.org/122-412-408-508-620},
 number = {US 5160695 A}
}


@patent{BUSSARDROBERTW.20070927,
 author = {Bussard, Robert W. and {GRAY-BUSSARD DOLLY H}},
 year = {2007/09/27},
 title = {Method and apparatus for controlling charged particles},
 url = {https://lens.org/071-995-351-478-406},
 number = {US 2008/0187086 A1}
}


@article{Buzarbaruah.2015,
 abstract = {In this paper, we present the design of a linear neutron source based on the concept of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion. The source mainly comprises of a concentric coaxial cylindrical grid assembly housed inside a double walled cylindrical vacuum chamber, a gas injection system, a high voltage feedthrough and a high voltage negative polarity power supply. The inner grid will be kept at a high negative potential with respect to the outer grid that will be grounded. The effect of grid transparency on electric potential distribution and ion trajectories has been studied using SIMION. A diffuse deuterium plasma will be initially created by making filament discharge and subsequently, on application of high negative voltage to the inner grid, deuterons will be accelerated towards the axis of the device. These deuterons will oscillate in the negative potential and consequently fuse in between the grids to produce neutrons. This source is expected to produce 107-108 neutrons/s. The proposed linear neutron source will be operated both in the continuous and pulse modes and it will be utilized for a few near term applications namely fusion reactor material studies and explosive detection. {\copyright} 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Buzarbaruah, N. and Dutta, N. J. and Bhardwaz, J. K. and Mohanty, S. R.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Design of a linear neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84920874489&doi=10.1016%2fj.fusengdes.2014.12.020&partnerID=40&md5=3ab7783ec74e88d810be7b1d40e1f432},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Electric discharges;Electric potential;Electric potential distribution;Electric power distribution;Electric power systems;Electrostatics;Explosive Detection;Explosives detection;Fusion reactor materials;Gas injection system;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Linear neutron source;Negative polarity;Negative potential;Neutron sources;Neutrons;SIMION},
 pages = {97--104},
 volume = {90},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/j.fusengdes.2014.12.020}
}


@article{Buzarbaruah.2017,
 abstract = {Deuterium plasma has been produced in a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device using hot and cold cathode discharges and the plasma parameters are determined by employing an electrostatic probe. The plasma temperature and density are estimated at optimum experimental conditions and it is noted that the plasma temperature is 3 eV in the case of hot cathode discharge whereas 10 eV in the case of the cold cathode discharge. The plasma density as determined is two orders more in the case of the hot cathode discharge than the other. The probe is also used to observe the ion oscillation in the negative potential well that is formed in between the cathode grid and chamber (anode). The observation of spontaneous oscillation along with the harmonics has been reported. {\copyright} 2017 Elsevier B.V.},
 author = {Buzarbaruah, N. and Dutta, N. J. and Borgohain, D. and Mohanty, S. R. and Bailung, H.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Study on discharge plasma in a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85020138427&doi=10.1016%2fj.physleta.2017.05.029&partnerID=40&md5=5d0d922ec61cb6bb7bc563fb2e0e8825},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Cold cathode discharge;Cold cathode tubes;electron temperature;Electrostatic probe;Experimental conditions;Fusion reactors;Glow discharges;Hot cathode discharge;Hot cathodes;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Langmuir probe;Langmuir probes;Plasma density;Plasma temperature;Probes;Spontaneous oscillations},
 pages = {2391--2396},
 volume = {381},
 number = {30},
 issn = {03759601},
 journal = {Physics Letters, Section A: General, Atomic and Solid State Physics},
 doi = {10.1016/j.physleta.2017.05.029}
}


@article{Buzarbaruah.2018,
 abstract = {The adaption of new generation portable neutron sources has been increasingly marked in a wide range of research fields compared to the large-scale neutron generators. In this context, we have successfully demonstrated some essential parameters required for the emission of 2.45 MeV DD fusion neutrons from a steady state portable linear neutron source based on inertial electrostatic confinement scheme. The parameters that control the production of neutrons are the working pressure of the fuel gas, applied voltage, measured current and cathode geometries. The neutrons emitted from the source are confirmed using neutron monitor, bubble dosimeters, nuclear track detectors, and He-3 proportional counter. Presently, the device produces neutrons up to the order of $\sim$ 106 n/sec at discharge voltage ranging from -60 kV to -80 kV, and discharge current of 20 mA to 30 mA. {\copyright} 2018 Elsevier B.V.},
 author = {Buzarbaruah, N. and Mohanty, S. R. and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2018},
 title = {A study on neutron emission from a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 keywords = {DD neutrons;D-D neutrons;Discharge currents;Discharge voltages;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutron detectors;Neutron generators;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Nuclear track detector},
 pages = {66--73},
 volume = {911},
 issn = {01689002},
 journal = {Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment},
 doi = {10.1016/j.nima.2018.09.076}
}


@article{Cai.2020,
 abstract = {The Helicon Injected Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) offers an attractive D-D neutron source for neutron commercial and homeland security activation neutron analysis. Designs with multiple injectors also provide a potential route to an attractive small fusion reactor. Use of such a reactor has also been studied for deep space propulsion. In addition, a non-fusion design been studied for use as an electric thruster for near-term space applications. The Helicon Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is an advanced space plasma thruster coupling the helicon and a modified IEC. A key aspect for all of these systems is to develop efficient coupling between the Helicon plasma injector and the IEC. This issue is under study and will be described in this presentation. To analyze the coupling efficiency, ion flow rates (which indicate how many ions exit the helicon and enter the IEC device per second) are investigated by a global model. In this simulation particle rate and power balance equations are solved to investigate the time evolution of electron density, neutral density and electron temperature in the helicon tube. In addition to the Helicon geometry and RF field design, the use of a potential bias plate at the gas inlet of the Helicon is considered. Biasing the plasma potential can increase the downstream ion velocity, but the optimal bias is a complex function of the Helicon parameters. In general, the results indicate that ion flow rate could be optimized by increasing the power supply, properly modifying the helicon tube length, radius and bias plate voltage. The selection of helicon configuration parameters, including power supply, helicon tube length, radius and bias voltage to optimize ion flow rates in a steady-state discharge are quantitatively presented based on the developed global model. This provides a guide for future experiments plus further investigations using 2 and 3 D modeling.},
 author = {Cai, Qiheng and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Optimization of ion flow rates in a helicon injected IEC fusion system},
 keywords = {global model;helicon;hipper;IEC;Plasma;space propulsion;thruster},
 pages = {43--49},
 volume = {4},
 number = {2},
 journal = {Aeronautics and Aerospace Open Access Journal},
 doi = {10.15406/aaoaj.2020.04.00105}
}


@phdthesis{Calburean.2020,
 abstract = {In order to improve the performance of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) based fusion devices, so as to improve their effectiveness as low cost, portable neutron sources, a novel use of ion sources is proposed as a means of increasing fusion reaction rate at similar power levels. This paper aims to determine the success and practicality of the proposed use type for ion sources and characterize the IEC device in question, in terms of performance, and neutron emission. The application outlined aims to improve upon the performance of IEC devices with an anode layer ion source. The above-mentioned approach was evaluated by first conditioning the IEC fusion device in question. Then a neutron flux baseline was recorded as a metric for performance, and to evaluate the assumption of neutron emission isotropy in the device. Then an ion source was installed in the chamber, and the system was once again conditioned in the same manner. A similar baseline reading and analysis was done to ensure a correct comparison could be made between performance with the ion source turned on and off. Next the system was run with the ion source at full power to allow for further characterization of the performance and stability of the device. Finally, a last run was carried out with the ion source properly tuned, and results were compared to both baseline runs. It has been shown that there is a potential performance gain from operation with an ion source, both in terms of system stability and improved neutron emission. Across all run campaigns, the assumption of isotropic emission was shown to be a poor representation of the actual emission. With a higher degree of certainty, it has been shown that operation with an ion source serves to reliably exaggerate the anisotropy found in baseline campaigns.},
 author = {Calburean, Alexandru D.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Performance Impact of Ion Sources in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Devices},
 school = {{Massachussets Institute of Technology}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@article{Carr.2010,
 abstract = {Floating potential measurements have been carried out on a Polywell inertial electrostatic confinement device that uses magnetic cusps to trap electrons and establish a virtual cathode. In particular, the dependence of the floating potential on the coil current and background gas pressure was studied. The magnetic field coils were driven by a pulsed current supply and it was found that the virtual cathode could only be established within a narrow range of currents. In addition, it was shown that the magnitude of the floating potential increased with decreasing background gas pressure. It is conjectured that the depth of the virtual cathode and its lifetime are dependent on the magnitude of the injected electron current. {\copyright} 2010 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Carr, Matthew and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2010},
 title = {The dependence of the virtual cathode in a Polywell on the coil current and background gas pressure},
 keywords = {Background gas;Coil current;Floating potentials;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Injected electrons;Magnetic cusps;Magnetic field coil;Magnetic fields;Pulsed currents;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {17},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3428744}
}


@article{Carr.2010c,
 abstract = {Floating potential measurements have been carried out on a Polywell{\texttrademark} inertial electrostatic confinement device that uses magnetic cusps to trap electrons and establish a virtual cathode. In particular, the dependence of the floating potential on the coil current and background gas pressure was studied. The magnetic field coils were driven by a pulsed current supply and it was found that the virtual cathode could only be established within a narrow range of currents. In addition, it was shown that the magnitude of the floating potential increased with decreasing background gas pressure. It is conjectured that the depth of the virtual cathode and its lifetime are dependent on the magnitude of the injected electron current. {\copyright} 2010 American Institute of Physics},
 author = {Carr, Matthew and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2010},
 title = {The dependence of the virtual cathode in a Polywell on the coil current and background gas pressure},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.3428744},
 pages = {052510},
 volume = {17},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3428744}
}


@article{Carr.2011,
 abstract = {The magnetic field structure in a Polywell device is studied to understand both the physics underlying the electron confinement properties and its estimated performance compared to other cusped devices. Analytical expressions are presented for the magnetic field in addition to expressions for the point and line cusps as a function of device parameters. It is found that at small coil spacings, it is possible for the point cusp losses to dominate over the line cusp losses, leading to longer overall electron confinement. The types of single particle trajectories that can occur are analysed in the context of the magnetic field structure which results in the ability to define two general classes of trajectories, separated by a critical flux surface. Finally, an expression for the single particle confinement time is proposed and subsequently compared with simulation. {\copyright} 2011 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Carr, Matthew and Gummersall, David V. and Cornish, Scott and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Low beta confinement in a Polywell modelled with conventional point cusp theories},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-82555173617&doi=10.1063%2f1.3655446&partnerID=40&md5=ce56abfa0159799e5145cbc8a07220d1},
 keywords = {Analytical expressions;Critical flux;Device parameters;Electron confinement;Field structures;General class;Magnetic fields;Plasma confinement;Single particle;Single particle trajectories},
 volume = {18},
 number = {11},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3655446}
}


@article{Carr.2013,
 abstract = {Orbital limited motion theory has been applied to two biased probes in a low beta Polywell. The cases studied include electron injection, magnetic field scaling, Polywell bias scaling, and radial position profiles. Langmuir's original orbital limited motion results for a monoenergetic electron beam are shown to be in excellent agreement for electron injection into the Polywell. A distribution function is proposed for the electron plasma characteristics in the centre of the magnetic null and confirmed with experimental results. A translational stage was used to measure the radial plasma potential profile. In other experiments, two probes were used to simultaneously measure the profiles in both the null and a position halfway along a corner cusp. The results confirm a radial potential well created by electron trapping in the device. In addition, we present preliminary results of the potential well scaling with the magnetic field, Polywell bias voltage, and the injected beam current. The electron population was found to maintain non-equilibrium in all cases studied. {\copyright} 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.},
 author = {Carr, Matthew and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2013},
 title = {A biased probe analysis of potential well formation in an electron only, low beta Polywell magnetic field},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84878909195&doi=10.1063%2f1.4804279&partnerID=40&md5=4cd89eb43eaf8cfdb900b8f1ffa322a7},
 keywords = {Electron injection;Electron plasmas;Electron population;Electron trapping;Magnetic fields;Monoenergetic electron beams;Non equilibrium;Potential wells;Probes;Radial position;Translational stage},
 volume = {20},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4804279}
}


@phdthesis{Carr.2013b,
 author = {Carr, Matthew},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Electrostatic potential measurements and point cusp theories applied to a low beta polywell fusion device},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Chacon.1996,
 abstract = {D-3He fusion minimizes neutrons and maximizes charged fusion products, enabling increased energy recovery efficiency by direct conversion. However, scarce 3He terrestrial resources have deterred research {\&} development (R{\&}D) on this alternative. Here, we explore 3He production through inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) breeders, which supply 3He to field-reversed configuration (FRC) satellite reactors. The breeder-satellite system is analyzed in terms of energy balance, taking the net energy gain of the overall system as the key parameter. An economic study determines the competitiveness of breeding with respect to 3He lunar mining, already shown to be an attractive route for commercial exploitation.},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H.},
 year = {1996},
 title = {IEC breeder for D-3He satellite systems},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0030073878&doi=10.13182%2ffst96-a11963131&partnerID=40&md5=5b2fb2544922517e151110548a2362ad},
 keywords = {Breeder reactors;Calculations;Cost effectiveness;Deuterium;Energy balance;Energy conversion;Field reversed configuration satellite reactors;Fusion reactions;helium;Inertial electrostatic confinement breeder;Lunar mining;Satellites;Thermal power},
 pages = {1320--1325},
 volume = {30},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst96-a11963131}
}


@inproceedings{Chacon.1997,
 abstract = {An approximate model (C-Fusion) has been developed to model the plasma physics of the inertial electrostatic confinement cylindrical (IEC-C) fusion device. Several simplifying approximations are employed: the plasma is locally quasi-neutral, there is a spatially one-dimensional variation of plasma properties, and the plasma potential profile is linear. Ions are assumed to have a mono-energetic distribution. The effects of ion-ion and ion-neutral collisions, as well as charge exchange, are included in the model via a recirculation parameter \textgreek{h}. A parametric study using this model shows that the neutron generation rate reaches 108 D-D n/s for operation regimes ranging from 40 kV, 10 A to 80 kV, 1A.},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Bromley, Blair P. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Prospects of the cylindrical IEC fusion device as a neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031633457&partnerID=40&md5=cf8f53c93ad4490f6d939cde2c899c12},
 keywords = {Approximation theory;Charge transfer;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement cylindrical fusion device;Ions;Mathematical models;Maxwell equations;Neutron sources;Plasma physics;Plasmas},
 pages = {858--861},
 booktitle = {17th IEEE/NPSS Symposium Fusion Engineering},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{Chacon.1997b,
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and DeMora, John M. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Engineering Issues of Gridded Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Devices},
 pages = {737--740},
 volume = {2},
 booktitle = {17th IEEE/NPSS Symposium Fusion Engineering},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{Chacon.1998,
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis},
 title = {Implicit Bounce-Averaged Fokker-Planck (BAFP) Code to Study the Ion Defocusing in Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Systems (Poster)},
 pages = {Q7P.23},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1998}
}


@article{Chacon.1998c,
 abstract = {Fusion fuel of D-3He combines a high-energy yield perfusion reaction with a relatively high fusion cross section. Moreover, its nuclear reaction (D+3He$\rightarrow$p+\textgreek{a}, 18.3 MeV) minimizes neutrons and maximizes charged fusion products, enabling increased energy recovery efficiency by direct conversion. However, scarce 3He terrestrial resources have deterred research and development on this alternative. Production of 3He through inertial electrostatic confinement breeders, which supply 3He to field-reversed-configuration reactors (called satellites in reference to their dependence on the breeder) is explored. The breeder-satellite system is analyzed in terms of both energy balance and economics. The energy balance takes the net energy gain of the global system as the key parameter. The economic study determines the competitiveness of breeding with respect to 3He lunar mining, which was already shown to be an ultimately attractive route for commercial development.},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement 3He breeder for D-3He satellite systems},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0032024626&doi=10.13182%2fFST98-A28&partnerID=40&md5=6887e58c0ebd659d418d1046ca131faa},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;helium;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement breeders;Nuclear energy;Nuclear fuels},
 pages = {182--209},
 volume = {33},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST98-A28}
}


@inproceedings{Chacon.1999,
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H. and Barnes, Daniel C. and Knoll, D. A.},
 title = {Energy gain calculations in spherical IEC fusion systems using the BAFP code},
 pages = {BP11.00},
 volume = {41},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1999}
}


@phdthesis{Chacon.1999b,
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis},
 year = {1999},
 title = {Fokker-Planck Modelling of Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Virtual Cathode Fusion Systems},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Chacon.2000,
 abstract = {In the Penning fusion device, a spherical cloud of electrons, confined in a Penning-type trap, creates the ion-confining electrostatic well. Calculations performed with a bounce-averaged Fokker--Planck model have suggested that highest fusion energy gains in Penning fusion systems occur when the ion population is predominantly Maxwellian. However, the question arises about the stability of the electron cloud in the presence of thermal ions. Here, a stability analysis of rigid-rotor electrons confining thermal ions is performed. The results indicate that such configuration is absolutely stable to electrostatic perturbations for arbitrary rigid-rotor electron distributions.},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Stability of thermal ions confined by rigid-rotor electron clouds in Penning fusion systems},
 pages = {4774--4777},
 volume = {7},
 number = {11},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1312822}
}


@article{Chacon.2000c,
 abstract = {In the Penning fusion device, a spherical cloud of electrons, confined in a Penning-type trap, creates the ion-confining electrostatic well. Calculations performed with a bounce-averaged Fokker-Planck model have suggested that highest fusion energy gains in Penning fusion systems occur when the ion population is predominantly Maxwellian. However, the question arises about the stability of the electron cloud in the presence of thermal ions. Here, a stability analysis of rigid-rotor electrons confining thermal ions is performed. The results indicate that such configuration is absolutely stable to electrostatic perturbations for arbitrary rigid-rotor electron distributions. {\copyright} 2000 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Stability of thermal ions confined by rigid-rotor electron clouds in Penning fusion systems},
 pages = {4774--4777},
 volume = {7},
 number = {11},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1312822}
}


@article{Chacon.2000d,
 abstract = {In spherical Penning fusion devices, a spherical cloud of electrons, confined in a Penning-like trap, creates the ion-confining electrostatic well. Fusion energy gains for these systems have been calculated in optimistic conditions (i.e., spherically uniform electrostatic well, no collisional ion-electron interactions, single ion species) using a bounce-averaged Fokker-Planck (BAFP) model. Results show that steady-state distributions in which the Maxwellian ion population is dominant correspond to lowest ion recirculation powers (and hence highest fusion energy gains). It is also shown that realistic parabolic-like wells result in better energy gains than square wells, particularly at large well depths ({\textgreater} 100 kV). Operating regimes with fusion power to ion input power ratios (Q-value) {\textgreater} 100 have been identified. The effect of electron losses on the Q-value has been addressed heuristically using a semianalytic model, indicating that large Q-values are still possible provided that electron particle losses are kept small and well depths are large. (C) 2000 American Institute of Physics. [S1070- 664X(00)00711-4].},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Miley, George H. and Barnes, Daniel C. and Knoll, D. A.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Energy gain calculations in Penning fusion systems using a bounce-averaged Fokker--Planck model},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1310199},
 pages = {4547--4560},
 volume = {7},
 number = {11},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1310199}
}


@article{Chacon.2001,
 abstract = {A bounce-averaged Fokker-Planck code (BAFP) has been developed and tested. BAFP implements a multi-dimensional, energy-conservative, time-implicit solution of the Fokker-Planck equation in two velocity and one spatial dimensions. A Jacobian-free, Newton-Krylov solver efficiently inverts the time-implicit equations. Bounce averaging removes the fast time scale for motion of trapped ions, so low-collisionality ion systems can effectively be treated. BAFP has been applied to ion dynamics in virtual-cathode spherical inertial electrostatic (IEC) fusion devices, which employ a spherical cloud of electrons to create a kV electrostatic well to confine and spherically focus ions. Here, Penning-type IEC devices are studied. Steady-state ion distribution functions obtained with BAFP in operating limits of interest are presented, and show that a variety of steady-state equilibriums are possible in these systems.},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Barnes, Daniel C. and Knoll, D. A. and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Bounce-averaged ion Fokker-Planck code for Penning fusion devices},
 keywords = {Bounce-averaged Fokker-Planck code (BAFP);Cathodes;Computer simulation;Computer software;Electrostatics;Functions;Fusion reactors;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Mathematical models;Penning traps;Plasmas},
 pages = {183--208},
 volume = {134},
 number = {2},
 issn = {00104655},
 journal = {Computer Physics Communications},
 doi = {10.1016/S0010-4655(00)00200-9}
}


@article{Chacon.2001b,
 abstract = {A bounce-averaged Fokker-Planck code (BAFP) has been developed and tested. BAFP implements a multi-dimensional, energy-conservative, time-implicit solution of the Fokker-Planck equation in two velocity and one spatial dimensions. A Jacobian-free, Newton-Krylov solver efficiently inverts the time-implicit equations. Bounce averaging removes the fast time scale for motion of trapped ions, so low-collisionality ion systems can effectively be treated. BAFP has been applied to ion dynamics in virtual-cathode spherical inertial electrostatic (IEC) fusion devices, which employ a spherical cloud of electrons to create a kV electrostatic well to confine and spherically focus ions. Here, Penning-type IEC devices are studied. Steady-state ion distribution functions obtained with BAFP in operating limits of interest are presented, and show that a variety of steady-state equilibriums are possible in these systems. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Barnes, Daniel C. and {Da Knoll} and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {A bounce-averaged ion Fokker-Planck code for Penning fusion devices},
 keywords = {bounce-average;Fokker-Planck;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Kinetic simulation;non-neutral plasmas;Penning traps;Plasmas},
 pages = {183--208},
 volume = {134},
 number = {2},
 issn = {00104655},
 journal = {Computer Physics Communications},
 doi = {10.1016/S0010-4655(00)00200-9}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.,
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Breakthrough of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Concept for Advanced Space Propulsion},
 pages = {IAC-18,C4,7-C3.5,12,x47993},
 booktitle = {69th International Astronautical Congress},
 year = {2018}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.1974,
 author = {Chan, Austen I.Y. and Gardner, Andrew L. and Hatch, Dorian M.},
 title = {Electron Density Measurement in a Beam-Driven Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 pages = {927},
 volume = {2},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1974}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.1975,
 author = {Chan, Austen I.Y. and Gardner, Andrew L. and Westenskow, G. A.},
 title = {Studies of Effect of Simultaneity of Injection of 6 Ion-Beams in a spherical Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement System},
 pages = {1369},
 volume = {20},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical},
 year = {1975}
}


@phdthesis{Chan.1975thesis,
 abstract = {The electron density in a spherical inertial-electrostatic confinement device using six ion beams was studied with microwave techniques involving the fundamental and higher order cavity resonances. Thermal expansion problems were circumvented by switched operation of the device. The deuterium background pressure was found to be a dominant factor in determining n/sub e/ throughout the entire range of 0.4 to 10 milliTorr. With 1 m Torr pressure and 10 mA total ion current (at 20 to 40 keV) central electron densities of the order of 10sup 9 electrons/ cmsup 3 were estimated, with total population of approximately 10sup 10 electrons. No evidence of shell structure of the electron density was found, although the use of higher order modes to obtain better spatial resolution was precluded by the low magnitude of n/sub e/. Indirect indication of weak ion trapping was obtained by measurement of the enhancement of neutron flux that resulted when the guns were operated simultaneously.},
 author = {Chan, Austen I.Y.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {Microwave measurements of electron density in a spherical inertial- electrostatic confinement system using six ion guns},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4155911},
 school = {{Brigham Young University}},
 doi = {10.2172/4155911},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.2016,
 abstract = {As the growth of popularity in the field of electric propulsion, the applicability of inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) as a space propulsion device is evaluated in recent years. Since 2009, the IEC devices in IRS is operated in non-fusion mode with a stable and constant plasma jet extraction in order to generate thrust. Several researches in plasma jet extraction, discharge phenomenon, electric properties, and loss mechanism were investigated either by simulation or experimental methods in IRS. In this paper, a brief review of the development of IEC device for propulsion purpose as well as the future plan in IRS will be introduced. INTRODUCTION:},
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Syring, Constanze and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Development of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Devices for Space Propulsion in IRS},
 keywords = {Electric propulsion;Inertial electrostatic confinement},
 pages = {SP2016{\_}3125348},
 booktitle = {Space Propulsion 2016},
 year = {2016}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.2017,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) is a fusion concept proposed in the 1950s. However, the detailed ionization and confinement mechanism are still under discussion, which limited the development of IEC. The observation and validation of a spherical double layer (SDL) in the IEC reveals the ionization and plasma confinement mechanism. The extraction of electron beam or plasma, both of which depend on the experimental conditions, are self-sustained. The current work assesses and verifies the IEC-SDL to a maximum possible by a comparison of model results with both respective experimental results, observations and analytical approaches. The implied extraordinary characteristics of this system indicate a wide-spectrum of applications for IECs: • Space propulsion from very-low orbit to deep space, e.g. Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion and fusion propulsion, respectively. • Electron beam/ plasma / neutron / radiation source for multi-disciplinary applications and industries. • Calibration standard for plasma diagnostic methods such as e.g. radiation. • Scientific and basic research on plasma dynamics and non-neutral plasma.},
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement: Innovation for Electric Propulsion and Plasma Systems},
 keywords = {Electric propulsion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;JET EXTRACTION;Spherical double layer},
 pages = {IEPC-2017-480},
 booktitle = {35th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2017}
}


@article{Chan.2019,
 abstract = {Characterization of IEC tight jet mode is achieved through Faraday probe measurements. Preliminary results indicate that the tight jet is a highly energetic electron beam with scattering of secondary ions and electrons, which result from electron beam impact ionization. A novel analytical model is proposed to evaluate this non-Maxwellian plasma beam, including a compensation of the secondary electron emission effect on the probe's surface. The results show prominent features on the extracted jet's kinetic energy and the respective (electron) current of IEC. In addition, they demonstrate a practical method to characterise non-Maxwellian plasma jets through Faraday probes. {\copyright} 2018 Elsevier Ltd},
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Jet extraction and characterization in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85050853333&doi=10.1016%2fj.vacuum.2018.07.053&partnerID=40&md5=9d7ef498174ba207ad52b4f94c11f57f},
 keywords = {Beam plasma interactions;Double layers;Electric propulsion;Electron beams;Electrons;Electrostatics;Energetic electron;Faraday probe;Impact ionization;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Kinetic energy;Kinetics;Maxwellian plasmas;Non-Maxwellian plasma;Plasma diagnostics;Plasma jets;Plasma waves;Probe measurements;Probes;Prominent features;Secondary electron emissions;Secondary emission;Spherical double layer},
 pages = {482--489},
 volume = {167},
 issn = {0042207X},
 journal = {Vacuum},
 doi = {10.1016/j.vacuum.2018.07.053}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.2019b,
 abstract = {The concept of electric propulsion based on inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) was proposed in 2017 IEPC accompanying with new theory explains the formation of its unique non-neutral plasma, which is called spherical double layer (SDL). To verify the theory and to realize this innovative thruster concept, design of cathode grid is the most crucial step, which determines the electric potential topography for triggering and maintaining the non-neutral plasma phenomenon. In addition, 3D-printing technologies are brought in for cathode manufacturing due to its complexity. Six different cathode geometries are tested and discussed with different flowrate of argon to figure out their respective influence with respect to the IEC discharge. Experimental results reveal decisive evidences supporting the SDL theory. The impact of extraction port design on plasma extraction are also disclosed in this paper. These certainly establish its role among next-generation electric propulsion concept and layout the roadmap for optimization of IEC plasma source.},
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Influence of cathode dimension on discharge characteristics},
 keywords = {3D printing;CATHODE;Inertial electrostatic confinement;plasma extraction},
 pages = {Paper IEPC-2019-292},
 booktitle = {36th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2019}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.2019c,
 abstract = {A prototype of a back-vacuum retarding potential analyzer (RPA) is proposed, developed and set-up to resolve a known issue occurring in the conventional RPA measurement: particle accumulation. In doing so the relevant design parameters are presented combined with a strategical evaluation for this innovative design concept. The evaluation reveals significant improvement on maximum ion flux density which is up to 1018 m-3 (conservative value) according to the analyses. This provides a reliable and accurate measurement basis for high density electric propulsion device/plasma source in the future which is in turn the prerequisite for the determination of ion and electron energies and corresponding verifications such as the determination of thrust.},
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Back-vacuum Retarding Potential Analyzer for Investigation Plasma Properties from Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Thruster},
 keywords = {Retarding potential analyzer},
 pages = {IEPC-2019-293},
 booktitle = {36th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2019}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.2022,
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Experimental Verification of an Electromagnetic Nozzle on Plasma Confinement and Acceleration},
 pages = {IEPC-2022-428},
 booktitle = {37th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2022}
}


@phdthesis{Chan.2022b,
 author = {Chan, Yung-An},
 year = {2022},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Thruster (IECT): Development, Modeling, and Characterization},
 school = {{University of Stuttgart}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Chan.c,
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Characterization of an IEC Plasma Thruster Plume by a Nude-type Faraday Probe},
 pages = {IEPC-2017-180},
 booktitle = {35th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2017}
}


@inproceedings{Chap.2014,
 abstract = {Simulation of the plasma in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) environment presents unique challenges: the plasma is non-neutral, the ions are not in thermal equilib- rium, and there generally is no steady-state. The lack of steady-state is due to the tendency of the ions to coalesce into packets (rather than spread out along beam lines) in some IEC configurations, such as the one studied here. In addition, the IEC must be simulated to a time-scale equivalent to 1000's of ion passes through the system to resolve significant fusion events. To model the IEC plasma, a hybrid particle-in-cell model is in development. While the methods of ion particle simulation are well established, modeling the electrons as a fluid requires more careful treatment to avoid spurious oscillations and instability. For this, the Scharfetter-Gummel method is applied to discretize the spatial derivatives, and the solution is found by an iterative approach using the Jacobian of the electron density and electric potential. {\copyright} 2014 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.},
 author = {Chap, Andrew M. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 title = {A hybrid particle-in-cell simulation for a multiple grid magnetic core inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84913534663&doi=10.2514%2f6.2014-3516&partnerID=40&md5=c3a18d364f02ae55fbe708d1b4ccf480},
 keywords = {Electric potential;Electrostatics;Hybrid particles;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Iterative approach;Iterative methods;Particle simulations;Plasma simulation;Scharfetter-Gummel methods;Spatial derivatives;Spurious oscillations},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-303-2},
 booktitle = {50th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and exhibit},
 year = {2014},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2014-3516}
}


@inproceedings{Chap.2015b,
 author = {Chap, Andrew M. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 title = {Simulation of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device Using a Hermite N-body Individual Time-step Scheme},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-321-6},
 booktitle = {51st AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2015},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2015-3860}
}


@inproceedings{Chap.2016,
 author = {Chap, Andrew M. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Simulation and a Statistical Treatment of Coulomb Collisions},
 booktitle = {52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2016}
}


@article{Chap.2017,
 abstract = {In kinetic simulations of non-Maxwellian plasmas, the calculation of particle scattering due to Coulomb collisions has no simple approximation. In such simulations, the number of collision interactions a particle experiences in a single time step is typically too large for direct calculation. In this work, the cumulative effect of a series of binary collisions is calculated numerically in a stochastic manner, and heuristic trends are produced as functions of the local plasma parameters. The result is a collision model suitable for implementation into a kinetic plasma simulation. The presence of low-probability, high-angle scattering due to close collision encounters is defined and described, and this effect is demonstrated in a test problem simulation of weakly collisional counterstreaming ion beams.},
 author = {Chap, Andrew M. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Coulomb collision model for use in nonthermal plasma simulation},
 volume = {95},
 number = {6},
 issn = {24700045},
 journal = {Physical Review E},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.95.063209}
}


@inproceedings{Chap.2017b,
 author = {Chap, Andrew M. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 title = {Simulation and Optimization of the Continuous Grid Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 url = {https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2017-4678},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-511-1},
 booktitle = {53rd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2017},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2017-4678}
}


@phdthesis{Chap.2017c,
 author = {Chap, Andrew M.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Simulation and Optimization of the Continuous Electrode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusor},
 school = {{University of Maryland}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Chen.,
 author = {Chen, George},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Analysis of Energy Balance in a Helicon Coupled To an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Chen.2013,
 abstract = {The Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is a viable near term solution for deep space vehicle propulsion. In the Fusion Studies Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, experiments are underway to measure key properties of this plasma thruster. Plasma jet characterization is being performed through thrust measurements using a force sensor, current measurements using a Faraday cup, and analysis of the plasma jet energy spectrum using a Gridded Energy Analyzer (GEA). These measurements will provide critical data necessary to confirm HIIPER's efficiency and performance as an in-space propulsion system. Along with these measurements, computational simulations are being performed to further the understanding of the fundamental physics of HIIPER. These simulations include tracking the particle trajectories of HIIPER in the IEC accelerator, and evaluating the ion and electron densities using COMSOL Multiphysics. The computational results from COMSOL will be compared to experimental data, particularly with the GEA and the Faraday cup. The Faraday Cup and GEA are the diagnostics which can measure properties COMSOL computes such as ion density.},
 author = {Chen, George and Krishnamurthy, A. and Keutelian, P. and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Experimental and computational study of HIIPER (Helicon-Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket)},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84882795853&partnerID=40&md5=ae463f5fed46448730d20996ca5303c3},
 keywords = {Electric propulsion;Electric thruster;Electrostatics;helicon;Helicon IEC coupling;Helicons;IEC;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Plasma devices;Plasma jets;Plasma propulsion;Plasma thruster;Plasma thrusters;Plasmas;Rockets;Spacecraft propulsion},
 urldate = {25 February 2013 through 28 February 2013},
 pages = {647--654},
 booktitle = {Nuclear and Emerging Technologies for Space, NETS 2013},
 year = {2013}
}


@inproceedings{Chen.2017,
 author = {Chen, George and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Helicon plasma injection into an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85063503636&partnerID=40&md5=4d9f5c785badad2539043fcf21006a47},
 urldate = {8 November 2015 through 12 November 2015},
 pages = {1329--1331},
 publisher = {{American Nuclear Society}},
 booktitle = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 year = {2015}
}


@misc{Cherrington.1973,
 author = {Cherrington, B. E. and Verdeyen, J. T.},
 date = {1973},
 title = {Potential Well Formation in Electrostatic Confinement Devices},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/4296478},
 number = {C000-2323-3},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}},
 doi = {10.2172/4296478}
}


@article{Cherrington.1975,
 author = {Cherrington, B. E. and Verdeyen, J. T. and Swanson, D. A.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT-THEORETICAL*},
 url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00088.x},
 pages = {139--151},
 volume = {251},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
 doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00088.x}
}


@misc{Cherrington.1975b,
 author = {Cherrington, B. E. and Verdeyen, J. T.},
 date = {1975},
 title = {Potential Well Formation in Electrostatic Confinement Devices},
 number = {C000-2323-5},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}},
 doi = {10.2172/8200365}
}


@misc{Cherrington.1975c,
 author = {Cherrington, B. E. and Verdeyen, J. T.},
 date = {1975},
 title = {Potential well formation in electrostatic confinement devices. Technical progress report},
 number = {C000-2323-4},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}},
 doi = {10.2172/4227220}
}


@misc{Cherrington.1976,
 author = {Cherrington, B. E. and Verdeyen, J. T.},
 date = {1976},
 title = {Potential well formation in electrostatic confinement devices. Technical progress report},
 number = {COO-2323-6},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}},
 doi = {10.2172/7280768}
}


@article{Cherrington.1977,
 abstract = {A theoretical analysis has been performed on the potential structure formed when electrons and ions are injected into the interior of a sphere. The solution of Poisson's equation including spreads in the total energy and the angular energy of the injected particles has predicted a multiple potential structure very similar to that experimentally observed. The inclusion of trapped secondary electrons in the analysis also predicts a ''triple-well'' structure similar to that assumed to have been formed in Hirsch's original experiments.},
 author = {Cherrington, B. E. and Swanson, D. A.},
 year = {1977},
 title = {Theory of the multiple potential well structure created by bipolar injection in spherical geometry},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5347183},
 keywords = {70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY;700105 - Fusion Energy- Plasma Research- Plasma Kinetics-Theoretical- (-1987);Angular momentum;BEAM INJECTION;BEAM-PLASMA SYSTEMS;CONFIGURATION;DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS;ELECTRON BEAM INJECTION;Energy;EQUATIONS;ION BEAM INJECTION;Poisson equation;Potential energy;SPHERICAL CONFIGURATION},
 volume = {20:12},
 issn = {10706631},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids},
 doi = {10.1063/1.861844}
}


@misc{Cherrington.1978,
 abstract = {The experimental and theoretical studies on Inertial Electrostatic Plasma Confinement that have been performed in the Gaseous Electronics Laboratory of the University of Illinois are reviewed. There has been experimental confirmation of the production of a multiple potential structure in both small and large spherical devices and the theoretical analysis has indicated the parameter range that is necessary in order to explain such results. Further experimental and theoretical approaches to testing the IEPC concept are suggested.},
 author = {Cherrington, B. E. and Verdeyen, J. T.},
 date = {1978},
 title = {Potential well formation in electrostatic confinement devices. Technical summary report},
 number = {COOO-2323-7},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@patent{Ci.2018,
 author = {Sedwick, Raymond J. and Chap, Andrew M.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Systems, Methods and Devices for Inertial Electrostatic Confinement},
 number = {US20180033496A1}
}


@article{Cipiti.2003,
 abstract = {The high-energy 14.7 MeV protons generated from the D-3He fusion reaction can be used to produce medical radioisotopes. Steady-state D-3He operation is possible using Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC); however, the location of the reactions must be known to use them effectively for isotope production. In the University of Wisconsin IEC Device, it has been found that as much as 2/3 of the total D-3He reaction rate can be due to embedded fusion reactions, reactions occurring within the cathode due to ion implantation. Therefore, the cathode surface sees a large, high-energy proton flux. Using a solid molybdenum cathode, and taking advantage of the embedded reactions, about 1 nCi of the medical isotope 94mTc was created via 94Mo(p,n)94mTc in a proof of principle experiment. This represents the first time the IEC concept has been used to produce a radioisotope using D-3He fusion.},
 author = {Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Embedded D-3He fusion reactions and medical isotope production in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electron energy levels;High-energy proton;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device;Ion implantation;Medical radioisotope;Molybdenum;Positron emission tomography;Protons;Radioisotopes},
 pages = {534--538},
 volume = {44},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST03-A392}
}


@phdthesis{Cipiti.2004,
 author = {Cipiti, Benjamin B.},
 year = {2004},
 title = {The Fusion of Advanced Fuels to Produce Medical Isotopes Using Inertial Electrostatic},
 school = {{University of Wiscon-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Cipiti.2005,
 abstract = {High temperature helium and deuterium implantation on tungsten has been studied using the University of Wisconsin inertial electrostatic confinement device. Helium or deuterium ions from a plasma source were driven into polished tungsten powder metallurgy samples. Deuterium implantation did not damage the surface of the specimens at elevated temperatures ($\sim$1200 °C). Helium implantation resulted in a porous surface structure above 700 °C. A helium fluence scan, ion energy scan, and temperature scan were all completed. With 30 keV ions, the pore formation started just below 4 $\times$ 1016 He+/cm2. The pore size increased and the pore density decreased with increasing fluence and temperature. The energy scan from 20 to 80 keV showed no consistent trend. {\copyright} 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Helium and deuterium implantation in tungsten at elevated temperatures},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Deuterium implantation;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;helium;Helium implantation;High temperature operations;Ion implantation;Plasma sources;Pore density;Porous materials;Surface structure;Tungsten powder metallurgy},
 pages = {298--306},
 volume = {347},
 number = {3},
 issn = {00223115},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Materials},
 doi = {10.1016/j.jnucmat.2005.08.009}
}


@article{Cipiti.2005b,
 abstract = {The D-3He fusion reaction has been used to produce medical radioisotopes using the University of Wisconsin Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion Device. The high-energy 14.7 MeV proton generated from the reaction can activate materials for isotope production. The traditional IEC setup has been altered to generate medical isotopes using beam-target D- 3He fusion. Beam target D-3He reactions in a thin-walled, water-cooled, stainless steel tube were used to create 13N, an isotope used in Positron Emission Tomography. At a maximum ion energy of 85 keV, 1.0 nCi of 13N was created as a proof of principle experiment. A scaled-up version of this concept may provide for a smaller, less expensive radioisotope generator for future commercial needs.},
 author = {Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {The production of 13N using beam-target D-3HE fusion reactions},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744390520&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A858&partnerID=40&md5=7d58c2244acb455fc1899209fc94210f},
 keywords = {Electrodes;Electrostatics;Fusion devices;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);ion beams;Ion energy;Medical imaging;Nuclear reactors;Positron emission tomography;Radioisotope generators;Radioisotopes},
 pages = {1245--1249},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A858}
}


@article{Consoli.1975,
 author = {Consoli, T.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {REVIEW OF ELECTROSTATIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC CONFINEMENT EXPERIMENTS MADE AT THE FRENCH A.E.C},
 pages = {322--345},
 volume = {251},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
 doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00099.x}
}


@article{Coppi.1995,
 author = {Coppi, B. and Deutsch, C. and Panarella, E. and Pegoraro, F. and Post, R. F. and Rahman, H. U. and Rostoker, N. and Roth and SALINGAROS, N. A. and Velarde, G. and Yamanaka, C.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {Report on the International Symposium ''Evaluation of current trends in fusion research''},
 keywords = {BEAMS;COMPRESSION;DIFFUSION;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;Ions;Laser fusion;MATTER;Plasma;SPHERICAL PINCH;TOKAMAK},
 pages = {281--327},
 volume = {14},
 number = {3},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/BF02215181}
}


@article{Cornish.2014,
 abstract = {A capacitive probe has been used to measure the plasma potential in a polywell device in order to observe the dependence of potential well formation on magnetic field strength, electron injection current, and polywell voltage bias. The effectiveness of the capacitive probe in a high energy electron plasma was determined by measuring the plasma potential of a planar diode with an axial magnetic field. The capacitive probe was translated along the axis of one of the field coils of the polywell, and the spatial profile of the potential well was measured. The confinement time of electrons in the polywell was estimated with a simple analytical model which used the experimentally observed potential well depths, as well as a simulation of the electron trajectories using particle orbit theory. {\copyright} 2014 AIP Publishing LLC.},
 author = {Cornish, Scott and Gummersall, David V. and Carr, Matthew and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2014},
 title = {The dependence of potential well formation on the magnetic field strength and electron injection current in a polywell device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84907012647&doi=10.1063%2f1.4894475&partnerID=40&md5=bed2c08365c040a4468297e3d38a0893},
 keywords = {Magnetic field strengths;Potential wells},
 volume = {21},
 number = {9},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4894475}
}


@article{Cornish.2016,
 abstract = {A new and simple type of electron gun is presented. Unlike conventional electron guns, which require a heated filament or extractor, accelerator and focusing electrodes, this gun uses the collimated electron microchannels of an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) discharge to achieve the same outcome. A cylindrical cathode is placed coaxially within a cylindrical anode to create the discharge. Collimated beams of electrons and fast neutrals emerge along the axis of the cylindrical cathode. This geometry isolates one of the microchannels that emerge in a negatively biased IEC grid. The internal operating pressure range of the gun is 35-190 mTorr. A small aperture separates the gun from the main vacuum chamber in order to achieve a pressure differential. The chamber was operated at pressures of 4-12 mTorr. The measured current produced by the gun was 0.1-3 mA (0.2-14 mA corrected measurement) for discharge currents of 1-45 mA and discharge voltages of 0.5-12 kV. The collimated electron beam emerges from the aperture into the vacuum chamber. The performance of the gun is unaffected by the pressure differential between the vacuum chamber and the gun. This allows the aperture to be removed and the chamber pressure to be equal to the gun pressure if required.},
 author = {Cornish, Scott and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2016},
 title = {The use of an electron microchannel as a self-extracting and focusing plasma cathode electron gun},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84958615894&doi=10.1088%2f1009-0630%2f18%2f2%2f07&partnerID=40&md5=7b03e7fa91fbca19caa2466283faca55},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Chamber pressure;Discharge currents;Discharge voltages;Electric discharges;Electrodes;electron beam;Electron beams;electron gun;Electron guns;Electrons;Electrostatics;hollow cathode;Hollow cathodes;IEC;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Measured currents;microchannel;Microchannels;neutral gun;Operating pressure;plasma gun;Plasma guns;Pressure differential},
 pages = {138--142},
 volume = {18},
 number = {2},
 issn = {10090630},
 journal = {Plasma Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1088/1009-0630/18/2/07}
}


@phdthesis{Cornish.2016b,
 author = {Cornish, Scott},
 year = {2016},
 title = {A study of scaling physics in a Polywell device},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@patent{CORNISHSCOTT.20170328,
 author = {Cornish, Scott and Sieck, Paul E.},
 year = {2017/03/28},
 title = {METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR COINCIDENTALLY FORMING A VIRTUAL CATHODE AND A HIGH BETA PLASMA},
 url = {https://lens.org/057-632-611-948-153},
 number = {WO 2017/172815 A1}
}


@phdthesis{Craft.2016,
 author = {Craft, Kyle},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Remote Operation of a Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor for Producing D-T Neutrons},
 school = {{Houghton College}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Daino.2002,
 abstract = {In this paper, we report recent experimental results of the cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device with an Electron Cyclotron Resonance (ECR) plasma source. It is aimed to increase averaged ion energy to increase fusion reaction rate through reduction of charge exchange reaction between energetic ions and neutral gas by decreasing operation pressure of IECF. Also, we measure the dependence of neutron productions on the discharge currents up to 40 mA, which was limited to less than 6 mA in the previous reports. Through the experiments, we could make stable discharge at about half pressures compared with previous experiments at same discharge voltage. Neutron production rate is found to be increase about twice. The dependence of neutron production rate on the discharge currents is found to be a little but larger than linear due to discharge voltage increased with increase of the current. Maximum neutron production rate we measured is 5.3? 105 neutrons per second (n/s) at 47 kV, 15 mA and 1.21 Pa, which is about 11 times as large as previous at 37.5 kV, 6 mA and 1.92 Pa.},
 author = {Daino, M. and Higashi, T. and Iwamoto, Yu and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Study of a compact neutron source using a cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF)},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0036364502&partnerID=40&md5=88d3e821d808d1753af90ea0e3e84b51},
 keywords = {Electric currents;Electric discharges;Electric potential;Electrodes;Electron cyclotron resonance;Electron traps;Fusion reactions;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);Plasma confinement;Plasma sources;Vacuum},
 urldate = {22 January 2002 through 25 January 2002},
 pages = {205--208},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 19th IEEE/IPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. 19th SOFE},
 year = {2002},
 address = {Atlantic City, NJ, USA}
}


@phdthesis{Daino.2002b,
 author = {Daino, M.},
 year = {2002},
 title = {Study for Low Pressure Operating of a Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device (in Japanese)},
 school = {{Kyoto University}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Dale.2009,
 abstract = {A 1/10th scaled prototype pulse modulator for an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) neutron source has been designed and tested at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). The scaled prototype modulator is based on a solid-state Marx architecture and has an output voltage of 13 kV and an output current of 10 A. The modulator has a variable pulse width between 50 \textgreek{m}s and 1 ms with {\&}lt; 5{\%} droop at all pulse widths. The modulator operates with a duty factor up to 5{\%} and has a maximum pulse repetition frequency of 1 kHz. The use of a solid-state Marx modulator in this application has several potential benefits. These benefits include variable pulse width and amplitude, inherent switch overcurrent and transient overvoltage protection, and increased efficiency over DC supplies used in this application. Several new features were incorporated into this design including inductorless charging, fully snubberless operation, and stage fusing. The scaled prototype modulator has been tested using a 1 k\textgreek{W} resistive load, Test results are given. Short (50 \textgreek{m}s) and long (1 ms) pulses are demonstrated as well as high duty factor operation (1 kHz rep rate at a 50 \textgreek{m}s pulse width for a 5{\%} duty factor). Pulse agility of the modulator is demonstrated through turning the individual Marx stages on and off in sequence producing ramp, pyramid, and reverse pyramid waveforms.},
 author = {Dale, G. E. and Wheat, R. M. and Aragonez, R. and Wheat, R. M.},
 title = {Testing a scaled pulsed modulator for an iec neutron source into a resistive load // Testing a scaled pulsed modulator for an IEC neutron source into a resistive load},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77949993844&doi=10.1109%2fPPC.2009.5386418&partnerID=40&md5=028cddbf7b158bb52f93aa555393d5c2},
 keywords = {DC supplies;Inductorless;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Load testing;Los Alamos National Laboratory;Marx modulators;Marx stage;Modulation;Neutron sources;Output current;Output voltages;Over current;Overcurrent protection;Overvoltage protection;Potential benefits;Prototype pulse;Pulse repetition frequencies;Pulse width;Resistive loads;Test results;Transient over-voltage;Wave forms},
 urldate = {28 June 2009 through 2 July 2009},
 pages = {1239--1243},
 booktitle = {PPC2009 - 17th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.1109/PPC.2009.5386418}
}


@article{Damideh.2012,
 abstract = {Among many facilities in the field of nuclear fusion devices, inertial electrostatic confinement (IECF) device has the specific character of tendency to generate fusion products continuously. Besides the distinctive characteristics, it has become an outstanding focus of interest for many scientists because of several applications such as the ability of performing hydrogen boron fusion. This paper summarizes primary results of the design and construction of the first Iranian IECF device (IR-IECF). It consists of 13.5 cm diameter stainless steel cathode, 41 cm diameter anode with a 60 cm diameter and 60 cm height vacuum chamber. The outcomes of neutron detection represent more than 10 7 neutron/s at the maximum biased voltage of -140 kV and 70 mA current with deuterium operational filling gas in the steady state regime. {\copyright} Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011.},
 author = {Damideh, V. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Koohi, A. and Aslezaeem, A. and Heidarnia, A. and Abdollahi, N. and {Abbasi Davani}, F. and Damideh, R.},
 year = {2012},
 title = {Experimental study of the Iranian inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device as a continuous neutron generator},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84862193488&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-011-9438-8&partnerID=40&md5=080bbef4ccb236b2ab4a17158336ee61},
 keywords = {Biased voltage;Boron;Design and construction;Deuterium;Electrostatics;Experimental studies;Filling gas;Fusion products;Fusion reactors;glow discharge;Glow discharges;Hydrogen;Inertial electrostatic confinement;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutron beams;Neutron detection;Neutron generator;Neutron generators;Neutron sources;Nuclear fusion devices;P- 11B fusion;Stainless steel cathodes;Steady-state regime;Vacuum chambers},
 pages = {109--111},
 volume = {31},
 number = {2},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-011-9438-8}
}


@phdthesis{Davis.,
 author = {Davis, Kevin},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Microwave Interferometer and Refractometer for the Wb-8 Polywell Fusion Device},
 school = {{The University of New Mexico}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{DelMedico.1995,
 author = {DelMedico, Susan G.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {Fusion-related projects at Rockford Technology Associates, Inc},
 keywords = {Annealing;Containers;Dense plasma focus;Fiber optics;Fission reactors;High temperature operations;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ions;Laser applications;Neutrons;Nuclear reactors;Optical devices;Plasmas;Radiation hardening;Rockford technology associates;Solar cells;Space satellite windows;Vacuum vessels},
 pages = {191--200},
 volume = {14},
 number = {2},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/BF02209057}
}


@inproceedings{Demora.1995,
 abstract = {The design of the cathode grid for a spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device is described based upon the results of SIMION, an electric field and ion trajectory program. Cathode grids of varying radii and geometric transparency were simulated with this code. Two-dimensional models of energetic ions in the IEC that were produced with SIMION show the formation of ion microchannels and the Star-mode. The SIMION results also show that smaller, less transparent grids produce smaller cores and more focused ion channels.},
 author = {DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Anderl, R. A.},
 title = {Study of ion microchannels and IEC grid effects using the SIMION code},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0029461789&partnerID=40&md5=35c1fb1b5055e0f0c7e02d5c43de66a7},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Computer simulation;Electric fields;Electrostatic devices;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion microchannels;Ion trajectory code;Ions;Neutron sources;Particle beam dynamics;SIMION code;Star mode;Two dimensional},
 pages = {1486--1489},
 booktitle = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1995.534506}
}


@inproceedings{DeMora.1995b,
 author = {DeMora, John M. and Hulin, M. and He, L.},
 title = {Conceptual design for a BNCT facility using an IEC fusion source},
 pages = {104, CONF-950601},
 booktitle = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 year = {1995}
}


@inproceedings{Demora.1996,
 abstract = {A cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device (C-device) is being developed at U of I as a portable neutron source for activation analysis.{\^{}}1 The device consists of a cylindrical 56-inch long, 4.5-inch dia. glass vacuum chamber containing $\backslash$sim0.5 mTorr of D{\_}2 fill gas; a hollow 3.5-inch diameter cylindrical cathode; two 3.5-inch dia. cylindrical anodes; and two concave focusing cathode end pieces. In low current ranges ({\textless}30 mA), neutron yield scales linearly with the ion current. At higher currents, the neutron yield should scale as ion current squared (i{\^{}}2) as beam-beam collisions between ions increase.{\^{}}2 Pulsed operation takes advantage of the i{\^{}}2 neutron scaling with high peak currents, reducing the waste heat rate at a fixed neutron yield and preventing over-heating. An exponential-decay RC pulser (0.5-A peak current, 20 to 80 ms width) and a square-wave pulser (30-A peak current, 3 $\backslash$mus width) have been developed. Optimal electrode sizes and separation distances were determined by steady-state operation; then were modified for high-current pulsed operation. Results to date will be presented. {\^{}}This work was supported through the INEL University Research Consortium, contract no. CC-S-622904-002-C, administered by LITCO under DOE Idaho Operations Office contract DE-AC07-94ID13223. {\^{}}1Y. Gu, et al., Fusion Technol., 26, 3 Part 2, 929-932 (1994). {\^{}}2Y. Gu, et al., ``Pulsed IEC Neutron Generator,'' 10th IEEE Int'l Pulsed Power Conf. (1995). In Press.},
 author = {DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert and Willliams, Mike and Gu, Yibin and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Pulsed Operation of Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 pages = {716},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1996}
}


@inproceedings{DeMora.1998,
 author = {DeMora, John M. and Jurczyk, Brian and Stubbers, Robert and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Charge Exchange Effects in IEC Fusing Plasmas},
 pages = {B1Q.16},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1998}
}


@phdthesis{DeMora.1999,
 author = {DeMora, John M.},
 year = {1999},
 title = {Cathode Grid Optimization for the Spherical Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Demora.1999b,
 author = {DeMora, John M. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Charge Exchange Modeling in a Spherical IEC Device},
 pages = {596},
 volume = {44},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1999}
}


@article{Dietrich.2003,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement of fusion ions in a modified Penning trap is further modified to include a mechanism for low-power recirculation of electrons via a diverter electrode placed in the low-field, cusp region of the trap. The locally divergent magnetic field lines act as a magnetic nozzle to extract energy bound up in the angular momentum of the larmor gyrations of the electrons, enabling the diverter potential to be close to that of the emitter while still collecting scattered electrons. In theory, the diverter recirculates a large fraction of the scattered core electron population back to the emitter through a much smaller potential difference, thereby reducing the overall power consumption for a given collisional diffusivity in the core region and improving overall system efficiency. Modeling of the general system is presented which suggests a power density that is too low to be practical for power generation unless ion density enhancement via a POPS type mechanism is realized. However, this technology is suggested as a potential candidate for an experimental plasma target, neutron source.},
 author = {Dietrich, Carl C. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {A magnetic nozzle and diverter electrode to improve penning fusion efficiency},
 pages = {259--266},
 volume = {692},
 issn = {0094-243X},
 journal = {Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry}
}


@phdthesis{Dietrich.2007,
 abstract = {Fusion energy is attractive for use in future spacecraft because of improved fuel energy density and reduced radioactivity compared with fission power. Unfortunately, the most promising means of generating fusion power on the ground (Tokamak based reactors like ITER and inertial confinement reactors like NIF) require very large and heavy structures for power supplies and magnets, in the case of magnetic confinement, or capacitors and lasers in the case of inertial confinement. The mass of these reactors and support equipment is sufficiently large that no existing or planned heavy-lift vehicle could launch such a reactor, thereby necessitating in-space construction which would substantially increase the cost of the endeavor. The scaling of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) is such that high power densities might be achievable in small, light-weight reactors, potentially enabling more rapid, lower cost development of fusion power and propulsion systems for space applications. The primary focus of the research into improving particle and energy confinement in IEC systems is based on the idea of electrostatic ion focusing in a spherically symmetric gridded IEC system.},
 author = {Dietrich, Carl C.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Improving Particle Confinement in Inertial Electrostatic Fusion for Spacecraft Power and Propulsion},
 school = {{Massachussets Institute of Technology}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Dobson.2004,
 abstract = {The use of microwave interferometry in making electron density measurements in spherical steady-state inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) Ar and deuterium plasmas was discussed. The numerical solutions of the one-dimensional Poisson equation for IEC plasmas were reviewed and energy distribution functions were identified. The deuterium fusion neutron emission rates were found to be isotropic. It was shown that anisotropy was observed in residual emissions during operation with nonfusing hydrogen-1.},
 author = {Dobson, C. C. and Hrbud, I.},
 year = {2004},
 title = {Electron density and two-channel neutron emission measurements in steady-state spherical inertial-electrostatically confined plasmas, with review of the one-dimensional kinetic model},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-3142658141&doi=10.1063%2f1.1755854&partnerID=40&md5=ce69dcb4326f8dec9324fcc38ddfda4a},
 keywords = {Anisotropy;Carrier concentration;Cathodes;Data reduction;Deuterium;Electrons;Emission rates;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Interferometry;Ionization;Kinetic energy;Neutron emission;Oscillations;Plasmas;Poisson equation;Quasithermal distributions;Thermal distributions},
 pages = {94--108},
 volume = {96},
 number = {1},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1755854}
}


@article{Dobson.2004b,
 abstract = {A polychromatic microwave quadrature interferometer was studied using several laboratory plasmas. The effects of including reflection terms in the data reduction equation were examined. The reflection terms were found to reduce the calculated error bars for electron density measurements by about a factor of 2, for reflection amplitudes around 10{\%}. The results show that the mean error bar for high-density measurements is 7.5{\%} and the mean phase shift error for low-density measurements is 1.2°.},
 author = {Dobson, C. C. and Jones, J. E. and Chavers, D. G.},
 year = {2004},
 title = {Instrument reflections and scene amplitude modulation in a polychromatic microwave quadrature interferometer},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-1842502568&doi=10.1063%2f1.1646738&partnerID=40&md5=7cf4ba839c1e6561d819f77526326bc4},
 keywords = {Amplitude modulation;Carrier concentration;Data reduction;Database systems;Electrostatic discharges (ESD);Electrostatics;Error analysis;Frequencies;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Interferometers;Interferometry;Microwaves;Phase shift;Plasmas},
 pages = {674--683},
 volume = {75},
 number = {3},
 issn = {00346748},
 journal = {Review of Scientific Instruments},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1646738}
}


@proceedings{DOE.1997,
 year = {1997},
 title = {Proceedings of the DOE Workshop on Innovative Confinement Concepts},
 institution = {DOE}
}


@phdthesis{Dolan.1970,
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James},
 year = {1970},
 title = {Electrostatic Inertial Plasma Confinement},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@misc{Dolan.1970b,
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James and Verdeyen, J. T. and Cherrington, B. E. and Meeker, D. J.},
 date = {1970},
 title = {Electrostatic Inertial Plasma Confinement},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4118907},
 number = {AFOSR Scientific Report AFSOR-70-1656TR},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@article{Dolan.1972,
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James and Verdeyen, J. T. and Meeker, D. J. and Cherrington, B. E.},
 year = {1972},
 title = {Electrostatic--Inertial Plasma Confinement},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1661367},
 pages = {1590--1600},
 volume = {43},
 number = {4},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1661367}
}


@article{Dolan.1993,
 abstract = {The proposed Polywell polyhedral multicusp plasma confinement systems are designed to achieve strong ion focusing to a radius rc $\ll$ R. In this letter, a phenomenon is indicated that may tend to limit the attainable degree of focusing. This defocusing effect should be taken into account when estimating the feasible regimes of operation. Although it may not preclude successful operation of polyhedral multicusp devices, it may limit the attainable convergence.},
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James},
 year = {1993},
 title = {Ion defocusing in multicusp plasma confinement systems},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0027640710&doi=10.13182%2fFST93-A30182&partnerID=40&md5=cd6b60fe7dee98a474b83d3f15c7659a},
 keywords = {Electron beams;Focusing;Ion defocusing;Ions;Multicusp devices;Plasma confinement;Plasma density},
 pages = {128--129},
 volume = {24},
 number = {1},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST93-A30182}
}


@article{Dolan.1994,
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James},
 year = {1994},
 title = {Magnetic electrostatic plasma confinement},
 pages = {1539--1593},
 volume = {36},
 number = {10},
 journal = {Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0741-3335/36/10/001}
}


@article{Dolan.1994b,
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James},
 year = {1994},
 title = {Response to ``Comments on `Ion Defocusing in Multicusp Plasma Confinement Systems'''},
 pages = {229},
 volume = {25},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST94-A30260}
}


@incollection{Dolan.1997,
 abstract = {Magnetic electrostatic plasma confinement may be thought of as electrostatic plugging of a magnetic cusp plasma confinement system, or as magnetic shielding of the grids of an inertial-electrostatic plasma confinement system. A linear set of ring cusps is the preferred magnetic field configuration. High voltage cathodes repel electrons escaping along magnetic field lines from magnetic cusp confinement systems. A negative potential well confines ions electrostatically. Electron losses are by diffusion across a thin boundary magnetic field and by diffusion in velocity space over the cathode barrier potential. Narrow anode gap widths ({\~{}} 4 mm) are used to keep the plasma self-shielding voltage drop \textgreek{Df} {\textless} 100 kV. The Jupiter-2M experiment at Kharkov demonstrated good confinement with electron transport across the magnetic field at nearly the classical rate. With near- classical transport, reactor studies indicate that a power gain ratio Q $\approx$ 10 may be attainable with plasma radius rp = 3 m, ring cusp magnetic induction B = 6 T, and applied voltage \textgreek{f}A = 400 kV. The main issues to be resolved are plasma purity, electron transport, alpha particle energy confinement, and electrode alignment and voltage holding.},
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James},
 title = {Prospects of Magnetic Electrostatic Plasma Confinement},
 pages = {197--209},
 publisher = {{Springer US}},
 isbn = {978-1-4615-5867-5},
 editor = {Panarella, Emilio},
 booktitle = {Current Trends in International Fusion Research},
 year = {1997},
 address = {Boston, MA},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-4615-5867-5{\textunderscore }14}
}


@article{Dolan.2011,
 abstract = {In the report, Lavrentyev also advocated developing, for peaceful applications, a nuclear fusion reactor in which spherical electrostatic grids would accelerate and confine plasma. The proposal, made independently before others published their work on the topic, initiated the Soviet program on controlled thermonuclear fusion research. Lavrentyev's report, which Andrei Sakharov reviewed positively, inspired Sakharov and Igor Tamm to consider using magnetic fields for fusion reactors.Lavrentyev enrolled in Moscow State University in August 1950. During an accelerated program of study, he proposed an ``electromagnetic trap'' that would confine plasma by electrostatic plugging of magnetic cusps.},
 author = {Dolan, Thomas James and Voitsenya, Vladimir S.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Oleg Aleksandrovich Lavrentyev (Obituary)},
 pages = {66--67},
 volume = {64},
 number = {10},
 issn = {0031-9228},
 journal = {Physics Today},
 doi = {10.1063/PT.3.1306}
}


@article{Donovan.2009,
 abstract = {The University of Wisconsin-Madison Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion Research Group has been performing experiments on an IEC device known as HOMER. This device is a 65cm high, 91cm diameter cylindrical aluminum vacuum chamber that contains two concentric spherical wire grids, the outer grid acting as the anode and the inner grid as the cathode. The potential difference between the anode and cathode drives ions towards the center of the grids. Using this device, steady-state D-D fusion reactions are created in order to produce 2.45 MeV neutrons. With the goal of achieving maximum neutron production rates, the following parameters have been varied: cathode voltage, ion current, operating pressure, and the separation distance between the anode and cathode. The studies on pressure, voltage, and current have led to the discovery of trends that allow for the extrapolation of neutron rates at various conditions. The cathode/anode separation studies have offered valuable insight into how the distance between the electrodes effects the concentration of deuterium molecular ions and the ion energy spectra, and has led to the implementation of a configuration that better maximizes neutron production rates.},
 author = {Donovan, David C. and Boris, David R. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Optimization of an iec fusion device to increase steady-state D-D neutron generation rates},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cathodes;Electrodes;Electrodes effect;IEC fusion device;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Ions;Neutron production rates;Neutrons;Operating pressure;Plasma interactions;Potential difference;Separation distances;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 pages = {507--511},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-22}
}


@phdthesis{Donovan.2011,
 author = {Donovan, David C.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Spatial Profiling Using a Time of Flight Diagnostic and Applications of Deuterium-Deuterium Fusion in Spatial Profiling Using a Time of Flight Deuterium-Deuterium Fusion in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Donovan.2013,
 abstract = {A new diagnostic has been developed that uses the time of flight (TOF) of the products from a nuclear fusion reaction to determine the location where the fusion reaction occurred. The TOF diagnostic uses charged particle detectors on opposing sides of the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device that are coupled to high resolution timing electronics to measure the spatial profile of fusion reactions occurring between the two charged particle detectors. This diagnostic was constructed and tested by the University of Wisconsin-Madison Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Group in the IEC device, HOMER, which accelerates deuterium ions to fusion relevant energies in a high voltage ($\sim$100 kV), spherically symmetric, electrostatic potential well [J. F. Santarius, G. L. Kulcinski, R. P. Ashley, D. R. Boris, B. B. Cipiti, S. K. Murali, G. R. Piefer, R. F. Radel, T. E. Radel, and A. L. Wehmeyer, Fusion Sci. Technol. 47, 1238 (2005)]. The TOF diagnostic detects the products of D(d,p)T reactions and determines where along a chord through the device the fusion event occurred. The diagnostic is also capable of using charged particle spectroscopy to determine the Doppler shift imparted to the fusion products by the center of mass energy of the fusion reactants. The TOF diagnostic is thus able to collect spatial profiles of the fusion reaction density along a chord through the device, coupled with the center of mass energy of the reactions occurring at each location. This provides levels of diagnostic detail never before achieved on an IEC device. {\copyright} 2013 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Donovan, David C. and Boris, David R. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Piefer, Gregory R.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Measuring time of flight of fusion products in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device for spatial profiling of fusion reactions},
 keywords = {Center-of-mass energies;Charged particle spectroscopy;Charged particles;Diagnostic products;Electrostatic potential wells;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;High resolution;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Particle detectors;Spatial profiles},
 volume = {84},
 number = {3},
 issn = {00346748},
 journal = {Review of Scientific Instruments},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4793771}
}


@inproceedings{Dunn.1967,
 author = {Dunn, D. A. and Barnes, Christopher W.},
 title = {One-Dimensional Computer Experiments on Inertial Confinement},
 pages = {290},
 volume = {13},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical},
 year = {1967}
}


@article{Dursun.2014,
 abstract = {A new inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device is proposed. The device contains two ion guns which feed the plasma media by deuterium ions. The device is designed in three dimensions and the finite difference method is applied to satisfy the boundary values of the cylindrical chamber. It is the first time that both the ions and electrons are simulated in this geometry by particle in cell (PIC) technique. Ions and electrons can interact with six bar-sized cathodes of the chamber and each other as a result of many-body problem. The device has a central dc current-carrying rod, which generates a homogeneous magnetic field surrounding the six cathodes. Thus we expect a better confinement compared to the conventional devices. The simulation records the real-time position and momentum by using the electromagnetic equations together with the momentum equations. The dynamics of the particles is seen to be complicated with vibrations on the horizontal plane due to the field. {\copyright} 2014, Kauno Technologijos Universitetas. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Dursun, B. and Kurt, Erol},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Electromagnetic design and simulation of a new fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84908473105&doi=10.5755%2fj01.eee.20.8.8435&partnerID=40&md5=fa7181195d98d00443ca261ef84fb0c4},
 keywords = {Electrostatic confinement;Magnetic field;Particle in cell;temperature},
 pages = {34--38},
 volume = {20},
 number = {8},
 issn = {13921215},
 journal = {Elektronika ir Elektrotechnika},
 doi = {10.5755/j01.eee.20.8.8435}
}


@article{Dursun.2016,
 abstract = {The simulations of the electrostatic confinement fusion unit have been presented in low magnetic field case, which is produced by a central wire system inside the grid system of the chamber. The time-dependent simulations have been realized by the time integration together with the finite difference elements (FDE). Especially, FDEs have been used to compute the chamber potential and magnetic field interaction of the particles, namely electrons and ions with the chamber structures. The central wires exert a magnetic field in the azimuthal direction inside the central grid. It is found that this field induces helical trajectories on the particles. The model unit has six cathodes around the center. The system is simulated in a Deuterium media which is fully ionized. Considering the boundaries of the unit, the electrical and magnetic forces are determined by using the many-body technique with the particle-chamber and particle--particle interactions. According to the results, many of the electrons can be repelled by the negative potential; however the ions have changeable trajectories with slower attitudes. The ion temperature has been found as Ti~=~6.9~keV at the end of 6~\textgreek{m}s. The ion distribution proves that 45{\%} of ions exist inside the grid however the increasing trend of ion temperature proves that this value is to be increased further. The velocity distribution shows a maximum around 5~$\times$~105~m/s, however there are also highly energetic particles. {\copyright} 2015 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC},
 author = {Dursun, B. and Kurt, Erol},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Many-body solution to the D2 gas filled inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84953410790&doi=10.1016%2fj.ijhydene.2015.12.135&partnerID=40&md5=d4662746437fa29f1cbb5f03d06cb4f2},
 keywords = {Azimuthal direction;Difference element;Electromagnetic field effects;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Energetic particles;Fusion;Fusion reactions;Ionization of gases;Ions;Low magnetic fields;Magnetic bubbles;Magnetic field;Magnetic fields;Many body;Many-body;Many-body techniques;Time dependent simulation},
 pages = {12546--12554},
 volume = {41},
 number = {29},
 issn = {03603199},
 journal = {International Journal of Hydrogen Energy},
 doi = {10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.12.135}
}


@article{Dursun.2017,
 abstract = {The energy distributions and electromagnetic emissions of deuterium ions and electrons in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) unit are reported for low and moderate magnetic field cases. The IEC device has a central wire system inside the grid system of the chamber for the production of the azimuthal magnetic field. The real-time simulations are performed by time integration method by using a finite difference method (FDM) for the physical geometry of device. It is observed that the field induces helical trajectories on the particles especially at the central region where the magnetic force is maximized in a fully ionized Deuterium media. The results prove that the particles have rich dynamics in terms of their trajectories. The effect of negative potential and particle--particle interaction play important roles to determine the trajectories even for low number of ions and electrons. Ion temperatures are calculated as Ti = 6.9 keV after 6 \textgreek{m}s for low field case and Ti = 1.517 MeV after 22 \textgreek{m}s for medium field case. {\copyright} 2017 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC},
 author = {Dursun, B. and Kurt, Erol and Kurt, Hilal},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Energy distributions and radiation emissions in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device under low and moderate magnetic fields},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85013627440&doi=10.1016%2fj.ijhydene.2017.02.015&partnerID=40&md5=0f2d59545235a9cb160dd37eb6b89a7b},
 keywords = {Azimuthal magnetic fields;Deuterium;Electromagnetic emissions;Electrostatics;Energy distribution;Energy distributions;Finite difference method;Finitedifference methods (FDM);Heat radiation;IEC;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Magnetic bubbles;Magnetic field;Magnetic fields;Magnetism;Particle-particle interactions;Radiation;Time integration methods;Trajectories},
 pages = {17874--17885},
 volume = {42},
 number = {28},
 issn = {03603199},
 journal = {International Journal of Hydrogen Energy},
 doi = {10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.02.015}
}


@article{Dutta.2014,
 abstract = {Energetic and high fluence helium ions emitted in a plasma focus device have been used successfully to study the radiation induced damage on tungsten. The reference and irradiated samples were characterized by optical microscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and by hardness testers. The micrographs of the irradiated samples at lower magnification show uniform mesh of cracks of micrometer width. However at higher magnification, various types of crystalline defects such as voids, pinholes, bubbles, blisters and microcracks are distinctly noticed. The prominent peaks in X-ray diffraction spectrum of irradiated samples are seen shifted toward higher Bragg angles, thus indicating accumulation of compressive stress due to the heat load delivered by helium ions. A marginal reduction in hardness of the irradiated sample is also noticed. {\copyright} 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Dutta, N. J. and Buzarbaruah, N. and Mohanty, S. R.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Damage studies on tungsten due to helium ion irradiation},
 url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022311514002475},
 pages = {51--56},
 volume = {452},
 number = {1-3},
 issn = {00223115},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Materials},
 doi = {10.1016/j.jnucmat.2014.04.032}
}


@phdthesis{Edwards.1979,
 author = {Edwards, B.},
 year = {1979},
 title = {Ion Convergence in Inertial-Electrostatic Devices},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{EftekhariZadeh.2016,
 abstract = {Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) is an important technique for quantitative and qualitative multi-element analysis. The Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device is known as a fast and monoenergetic neutron generator. In this study, NAA for cement elements using an IECF facility as a high energy neutron source was investigated. The Iranian IECF device was simulated using the MCNPX code version 2.7 and the 'ACT card' was used to consider the induced delayed gamma-ray spectra during delayed gamma NAA (DGNAA). The peaks related to Al, Ca, Fe and Si were distinguished precisely, which shows the applicability of IECF as an appropriate neutron source for DGNAA analysis for cement elements. {\copyright} The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016.},
 author = {Eftekhari-Zadeh, E. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Salehizadeh, A. and Nazemi, E. and Roshani, G. H.},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Neutron activation analysis for cement elements using an IECF device as a high energy neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84960801540&doi=10.1039%2fc5ay03280f&partnerID=40&md5=b35431a50673b3e292baeaf2ac651305},
 keywords = {Activation analysis;Cements;Chemical activation;Delayed gammas;Gamma rays;High-energy neutron;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;MCNPX code;Mono-energetic neutrons;Multielement analysis;Neutron activation analysis;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Ultraviolet spectroscopy},
 pages = {2510--2514},
 volume = {8},
 number = {11},
 issn = {17599660},
 journal = {Analytical Methods},
 doi = {10.1039/c5ay03280f}
}


@article{Egle.2007,
 abstract = {The performance of a new Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion device using a cylindrical anode and two different cathode geometries, spherical and cylindrical, was compared to an existing IEC device with two different sized configurations of spherical anodes and cathodes. Experimental data was generated at -30 to -150 kilovolts, 30 milliamps steady-state, and 0.3 Pascal of Deuterium (D) and/or Helium-3 (3He). The best neutron rate achieved by the new device in a D environment was 2.7x107 neutrons per second at 145 kV and 35 mA. In a D-3 He environment, the best proton rate achieved was 2.0x107protons per second at 130 kV and 30 mA. Both the D-D neutron rate and the D-3He proton rate were approximately 40{\%} lower than the larger volume existing IEC device.},
 author = {Egle, Brian J. and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Comparison of spherical and cylindrical cathode geometries in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cathodes;Cylindrical anode;Fusion reactions;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Neutrons;Protons},
 pages = {1110--1113},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1646}
}


@article{Egle.2009,
 abstract = {Design, modeling and simulation work has been done to develop a system of producing radioisotopes by using D-3He fusion and the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion concept. This work provides a set of requirements for moving from the previous proof-of-concept experiments to medically relevant dosages of the radioisotopes used in Position Emission Tomography (PET). This study focuses primarily on the production of 11Cfrom the 14N(p, a)11C reaction, and could be extended to additional PET isotopes. A target was designed for gaseous parent materials; it consists of vacuum tight panels placed inside the vacuum vessel of an IEC device. The side facing the isotropic source of 14.7 MeV fusion protons is a thin metal foil (̃0.5 mm ofTi). The foil acts to separate the vacuum environment of the IEC device from the pressured gaseous environment of the target. Parametric analysis of the foil thickness and 14N gas pressure was performed to optimize the efficiency of fusion protons in producing 11C. The MCNPX 2.5.0 simulations predicted that an optimized system could produce 390 nCi of 11C with the present laboratory scale IEC device at the University of Wisconsin, which has a D-3He fusion rate of 2 x 107 protons per sec (p/s).},
 author = {Egle, Brian J. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Production of carbon-11 from D-3He fusion devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-68949088327&doi=10.13182%2fFST09-A8955&partnerID=40&md5=cbef70f8e3d3ffae477e5e2050b2327a},
 keywords = {Carbon;Gaseous environments;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Isotropic sources;Model and simulation;Parametric -analysis;Position emission tomography;Radioisotopes;University of Wisconsin;Vacuum applications;Vacuum environment},
 pages = {518--522},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-A8955}
}


@phdthesis{Egle.2010,
 author = {Egle, Brian J.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Nuclear Fusion of Advanced Fuels Using Converging Focused Ion Beams},
 school = {{University of Wiscon-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Elaragi.2017,
 author = {El-Aragi, Gamal M.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device Source of X-Ray Radiation},
 keywords = {DETECTOR;Plasma;Vacuum;waveform;X-RAYS},
 pages = {37--46},
 volume = {1},
 number = {1},
 journal = {ITS Energy Research}
}


@article{ElAragi.2017b,
 author = {El-Aragi, Gamal M.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Building Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device Aimed for a Small Neutron Source},
 keywords = {Confinement;Electrostatic;Fusion;X-ray},
 pages = {88--92},
 volume = {4},
 number = {6},
 journal = {International Journal of High Energy Physics},
 doi = {10.11648/j.ijhep.20170406.13}
}


@article{Elaragi.2018,
 abstract = {An optical signal of IEC plasma using different gases has been registered by means of an optical fiber and photomultiplier (PMT). The light passing through the fiber is directed to the entrance window of a photomultiplier (PMT, Hamamatsu R955), connected to the digital scope. The discharge current of plasma discharge has been recorded using current probe. The X-ray emission in IEC plasma device was investigated by employing time-resolved detector. {\copyright} 2018, The Author(s).},
 author = {Elaragi, G. M.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Operation of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) Device Using Different Gases},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85040675160&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-018-0150-9&partnerID=40&md5=cdef89d65dec260fe747db3d4adaea8b},
 keywords = {Current probe;Digital scopes;Discharge current;Discharge currents;Electric discharges;Entrance window;IEC;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Optical fibers;Optical signals;Photomultipliers;Plasma discharge;X rays;X-ray;X-ray emission},
 pages = {37--44},
 volume = {37},
 number = {1},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-018-0150-9}
}


@article{Elaragi.2019,
 abstract = {In this paper, Egyptian first inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device, constructed at the Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA-IEC), is introduced the characterization of IEC Plasma Device. It consists of 2.8 cm stainless steel cathode, 6.5 cm anode diameter with 10 cm diameter 30 cm height vacuum chamber. The discharge current and voltage of plasma discharge has been recorded using current probe and resistive voltage divider respectively. The X-ray emissions in IEC plasma device were investigated by employing time-resolved detector. The temporal distributions of detected x-rays emission are occurring during the initial 1 microsecond. The calculated rate of DD-neutron generation using the same electrode configuration about 106 -- 108 neutrons/second. {\copyright} 2019 by the authors. Licensee ESJ, Italy.},
 author = {Elaragi, G. M.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Design and operation of first Egyptian IEC fusion plasma device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85086430083&doi=10.28991%2fesj-2019-01186&partnerID=40&md5=b8dc7b80b1c9b2f40568a003d391b8e4},
 keywords = {Confinement;Electrostatic;Fusion;Neutrons;X-ray},
 pages = {241--248},
 volume = {3},
 number = {4},
 issn = {26109182},
 journal = {Emerging Science Journal},
 doi = {10.28991/esj-2019-01186}
}


@article{Elmore.1959,
 abstract = {A system in which electrons are projected radially inwards from a spherical surface, has been proposed for the confinement of a plasma at thermonuclear temperatures. The equilibrium, economics, and stability of such a system are discussed theoretically. Although we conclude that it is of doubtful utility as a thermonuclear reactor, it may be possible to produce in this way small regions of thermonuclear plasma for study. The device appears to be unstable at economic densities. The stability is discussed in terms of a virial, which turns out to be mathematically tractable in this geometry. Copyright {\copyright} 1959 by the American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Elmore, W. C. and Tuck, J. L. and Watson, K. M.},
 year = {1959},
 title = {On the inertial-electrostatic confinement of a plasma},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0000280764&doi=10.1063%2f1.1705917&partnerID=40&md5=32b241f5ad533fb9f69606d0cd1e32bd},
 pages = {239--246},
 volume = {2},
 number = {3},
 issn = {10706631},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1705917}
}


@article{Emmert.2010,
 abstract = {A formalism for analyzing the effect of ion-neutral gas interactions on the flow of ions between nearly transparent electrodes in spherical geometry has been developed for atomic ions in a weakly ionized plasma, so that the important atomic effects are charge exchange and ion impact ionization. The formalism is applied to spherical, gridded, inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices. The formalism yields detailed information about the energy spectra of the ions and fast neutral atoms, and the resulting fusion rate for 3He ions in a background 3He gas. The results are illustrated with an example calculation for the Wisconsin IEC device operating on 3He. {\copyright} 2010 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Emmert, Gilbert A. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Atomic and molecular effects on spherically convergent ion flow. I. Single atomic species},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-75749137796&doi=10.1063%2f1.3290800&partnerID=40&md5=778a26bfb4c92c27c8f4842c160b0625},
 keywords = {Atomic and molecular process;Atomic ions;Atomic spectroscopy;Atoms;Background gas;Bouncing motion;Charge exchanges;Charge transfer;Convergent geometry;Deuterium;Deuterium plasma;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Energy spectra;Equations of motion;Experimental test;Fusion reactors;Impact ionization;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Integral equations;Ion bombardment;Ion exchange;Ion flow;Ion-impact ionization;Ionization of gases;Ions;Molecular effect;Molecular ions;Molecular species;Molecular structure;Negative potential;Neutral atoms;Neutral gas;Neutron production rates;Plasmas;Reaction rates;Single atomic species;Spherical geometries;Theoretical models;Transparent electrode;University of Wisconsin;Volterra equation;Volterra integral equations;Weakly ionized plasma;WISCONSIN},
 volume = {17},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3290800}
}


@article{Emmert.2010c,
 abstract = {A theoretical model for the effect of molecular interactions on the flow of molecular ions in spherically convergent geometry where the inner grid (cathode) is at a large negative potential and the outer grid (anode) is grounded has been developed. The model assumes a weakly ionized deuterium plasma composed of D+, D-2+, and D-3+ ions that interact with the dominant background gas (D-2). The interactions included are charge exchange, ionization, and dissociative processes. The formalism developed includes the bouncing motion of the ions in the electrostatic well and sums over all generations of subsequent ions produced by atomic and molecular processes. This leads to a set of two coupled Volterra integral equations, which are solved numerically. From the solution of the Volterra equations, one can obtain quantities of interest, such as the energy spectra of the ions and fast neutral atoms and molecules, and the fusion reaction rate. To provide an experimental test, the model is applied to inertial electrostatic devices and the calculated neutron production rate is compared to previously reported measurements for one University of Wisconsin inertial electrostatic confinement device [D. C. Donovan , Fusion Sci. Technol. 56, 507 (2009)]. The results show general agreement with the experimental results, but significant differences remain to be resolved.},
 author = {Emmert, Gilbert A. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Atomic and molecular effects on spherically convergent ion flow. II. Multiple molecular species},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cathodes;charge exchange;Deuterium;IEC;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;ionisation;plasma flow;plasma inertial confinement;Volterra equations},
 volume = {17},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3290801}
}


@phdthesis{Evans.1974thesis,
 abstract = {Instrumentation has been developed for the continuous recording of the frequency shifts of two resonances of a spherical microwave cavity. These changes in the resonant frequency are caused by the presence of a plasma in an electrostatic confinement system.},
 author = {Evans, Robert P.},
 year = {1974},
 title = {Instrumentation for continuously recording plasma-induced frequency shifts of two microwave cavity resonances},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4282250},
 school = {{Brigham Young University}},
 doi = {10.2172/4282250},
 type = {Master Thesis}
}


@article{Evstatiev.2007,
 abstract = {A major issue for electron injected inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices is space charge neutralization. A new formalism is developed that will allow this neutralization to occur for both oscillating and steady-state IEC plasmas. Results indicate that there are limits on the amount of compression that can be achieved by oscillating plasmas while simultaneously maintaining space charge neutralization and parabolic background potential. For steady-state plasmas, there are no such limits and space charge neutralization can be achieved even when the plasma becomes quasineutral. {\copyright} 2007 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Evstatiev, E. G. and Nebel, Richard A. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Park, J. and Lapenta, G.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Space charge neutralization in inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-34247565247&doi=10.1063%2f1.2711173&partnerID=40&md5=12d4e191cca25db8d09dfed95c145666},
 keywords = {Electric fields;Electric potential;Electric space charge;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Neutralization;Oscillating plasmas;Plasma confinement;Steady-state plasmas},
 volume = {14},
 number = {4},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2711173}
}


@phdthesis{Fancher.2018,
 author = {Fancher, Aaron N.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Fusion Neutron Production using Deuterium Fuel in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device at 10 to 200 Kilovolts},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@patent{Farnsworth.1962,
 author = {Farnsworth, Philo T.},
 year = {1962},
 title = {Space Charge Device for Producing Nuclear Reactions},
 number = {CA654306A}
}


@patent{FARNSWORTHPHILOT.19620111,
 author = {Farnsworth, Philo T.},
 year = {1966},
 title = {Electric discharge device for producing interactions between nuclei},
 url = {https://lens.org/160-027-094-285-563},
 number = {US 3258402 A}
}


@patent{FARNSWORTHPHILOT.19660513,
 author = {{FARNSWORTH PHILO T}},
 year = {1966/05/13},
 title = {Method and apparatus for producing nuclear-fusion reactions},
 url = {https://lens.org/177-349-996-335-75X},
 number = {US 3386883 A}
}


@article{Fitzgerald.2006,
 abstract = {Highly resolved Doppler shifted peaks of the hydrogenBalmer lines, resulting from charge exchange of H+, H2+,and H3+ with an H2 gas target, were obtained without theneed for a deconvolution procedure. This enabled the unambiguousdetermination of the chemistry of these hydrogen species in theunits of mTorr pressure range. This was obtained from a gaseousdischarge using a biconical hollow cathode that yielded a wellcollimated and monoenergetic beam.},
 author = {Fitzgerald, Michael and Khachan, Joe and Bosi, S.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Relative densities of hydrogen ion species in a hollow cathode glow discharge},
 pages = {35--39},
 volume = {39},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1434-6079},
 journal = {The European Physical Journal D - Atomic, Molecular, Optical and Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1140/epjd/e2006-00070-x}
}


@phdthesis{Fitzgerald.2009,
 author = {Fitzgerald, Michael},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Discharge physics and plasma transport in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Fitzgerald.2012,
 abstract = {A kinetic plasma simulation is presented for an Electrostatic Fusion device operating at units and tens of mTorr. The simulation included particle-in-cell (PIC), Monte Carlo (MC) and Vlasov equation components. The simulation was designed to model these devices including previously neglected atomic physics interactions and to subsequently generate experimental Doppler spectra for verification. The large variation in plasma conditions in the different regions of these devices required a number of different mitigating techniques. A novel kinetic treatment of cold electrons is presented. {\copyright} 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Fitzgerald, Michael and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2012},
 title = {A 2-D PIC/MC/Vlasov method for electrostatic fusion discharges},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84856224743&doi=10.1016%2fj.cpc.2012.01.001&partnerID=40&md5=2e3cd0f24b9645aa48075fc2adf5ef9e},
 keywords = {Atomic physics;Atomic spectroscopy;Computer simulation;Discharge;Discharge (fluid mechanics);Electric discharges;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Fusion;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;hollow cathode;Hollow cathodes;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Kinetic;Kinetics;Particle-in-cell;PIC;Vlasov;Vlasov equation},
 pages = {971--979},
 volume = {183},
 number = {4},
 issn = {00104655},
 journal = {Computer Physics Communications},
 doi = {10.1016/j.cpc.2012.01.001}
}


@inproceedings{Fonck.1995,
 author = {Fonck, R. J.},
 title = {Experimental and Modelling Tests of a Spherically Convergent Ion Focus},
 pages = {266},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 year = {1995}
}


@inproceedings{Fortov.2015,
 abstract = {DD neutrons from microfusion in the interelectrode space of a table-top low energy nanosecond vacuum discharge with a deuterium-loaded Pd anode have been demonstrated earlier. The detailed particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of the discharge experimental conditions have been developed using a fully electrodynamic code. The principal role of a virtual cathode and the corresponding deep potential well (PW) formed in the interelectrode space are recognized. The PIC modeling has allowed identifying the scheme of small-scale experiment with a rather old branch of plasma physics as inertial electrostatic confinement fusion. Deuterons being trapped by this well are accelerating up to the energies of a few tens of keV that provides the DD nuclear synthesis under head-on collisions. Meanwhile, any ions of other elements like He, C, O, Si (as main elements of different shells of stars) being placed in the PW (even with low Z charges) have to be accelerated easily up to the head-on collisions energies, which are corresponding to the temperatures of ignition Tign for different shells. We conclude that hypothesis on some imitation of different stages of stellar nucleosynthesis by nuclear burning in the potential well of virtual cathode in vacuum discharge seems to be reasonable and stimulating in the future study of complex element burning including advanced fuel like p-B11. {\copyright} Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Fortov, V.E. and Karamurzov, B.S. and Khishchenko, K.V. and Sultanov, V.G. and Efremov, V.P. and Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Karpukhin, V. T. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Oginov, A. V.},
 title = {Nuclear burning in a compact scheme of inertial electrostatic confinement as imitation of stellar nucleosynthesis. Experiment and PIC modeling},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84958999475&doi=10.1088%2f1742-6596%2f653%2f1%2f012025&partnerID=40&md5=fff9eed8ea073343cb5665673383fde7},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Chemical elements;Deuterium;Electrodes;Electrostatics;Experimental conditions;Head-on collision;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Nucleosynthesis;Palladium;Particle-in-cell simulations;Plasma simulation;Small-scale experiment;Stars;Stellar nucleosynthesis;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {653},
 publisher = {{Institute of Physics Publishing}},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2015},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/653/1/012025}
}


@phdthesis{Franzel.2009,
 abstract = {The basic principle of fusion is combining two light nuclei to form one nucleus that is lighter than the combination of the original two. This loss of mass is converted into energy (E=mc2 ) which can be harnessed for various applications. Fusion can take many different and varied forms including: aneutronic fusion, magnetic confinement (MFE), and inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) to name a few. Fusion is highly adaptable because it can use several different types of fuel such as Deuterium-Tritium, Tritium-Helium-3, Proton-Boron11, and Deuterium-Deuterium mixtures. On top of this, each of the fusion techniques mentioned uses different conditions to generate fusion. Because of the varied ways in which fusion can be attained it is a clean energy source that is almost infinitely renewable, solving not only an energy crisis but also removing the issues of radioactive waste from traditional nuclear power plants and emissions from other power sources (i.e. coal and oil).},
 author = {Franzel, Louis},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Neutron Production Analysis on Inertial Electrostatic Deuterium-Deuterium Fusion},
 url = {https://digitalcommons.longwood.edu/etd/115/},
 school = {{Longwood University}},
 type = {Honors Paper}
}


@misc{Froning.1997,
 author = {Froning, H. D.},
 date = {1997},
 title = {Roadmap for QED (Quiet Electric Discharge) Engine Research and Development},
 number = {NASA purchase Order No. H28027D for the NASA MSFC},
 institution = {{Flight Unlimited}}
}


@inproceedings{Froning.2001,
 abstract = {Previous studies have shown that Single-State-to-Orbit (SSTO) vehicle propellant can be reduced by Magnets-Hydro-Dynamic (MHD) processes that minimize airbreathing propulsion losses and propellant consumption during atmospheric flight, and additional reduction in SSTO propellant is enabled by Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion, whose more energetic reactions reduce rocket propellant needs. MHD airbreathing propulsion during an SSTO vehicle's initial atmospheric flight phase and IEC fusion propulsion during its final exo-atmospheric flight phase is therefore being explored. Accomplished work is not yet sufficient for claiming such a vehicle's feasibility. But takeoff and propellant mass for an MHD airbreathing and IEC fusion vehicle could be as much as 25 and 40 percent less than one with ordinary airbreathing and IEC fusion; and as much as 50 and 70 percent less than SSTO takeoff and propellant mass with MHD airbreathing and chemical rocket propulsion.},
 author = {Froning, H. D. and Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Shaban, Yasser R. and Momota, Hiromu and Burton, E.},
 title = {Concept for a high performance MHD airbreathing-IEC fusion rocket},
 pages = {963--968},
 volume = {552},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {2001},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1358035}
}


@inproceedings{FroningH.DavidJr..1993,
 author = {{Froning, H. David, Jr.} and Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {Fusion Electric Propulsion for Hypersonic Flight},
 pages = {AIAA 93-2611},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 29th AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {1993}
}


@inproceedings{FroningH.DavidJr..1993b,
 author = {{Froning, H. David, Jr.} and Little, J. and Pucket, I. and Vega, L.},
 title = {Fusion-electric propulsion for aerospace plane flight},
 pages = {AIAA-93-5126},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 5th International Aerospace Planes and Hypersonics Technologies Conference},
 year = {1993},
 doi = {10.2514/6.1993-5126}
}


@inproceedings{FroningH.DavidJr..2012,
 author = {{Froning, H. David, Jr.} and Barrett, Terence W. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Specially Conditioned EM Fields to Reduce Nuclear Fusion Input Energy Needs},
 url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875389212025011},
 pages = {77--86},
 volume = {38},
 editor = {Valone, Thomas},
 booktitle = {Physics Procedia},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.1016/j.phpro.2012.08.013}
}


@inproceedings{FroningJr..2005,
 abstract = {Previous studies have shown that Single-State-to-Orbit (SSTO) vehicle propellant can be reduced by Magnets-Hydro-Dynamic (MHD) processes that minimize airbreathing propulsion losses and propellant consumption during atmospheric flight. Similarly additional reduction in SSTO propellant is enabled by Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion, whose more energetic reactions reduce rocket propellant needs. MHD airbreathing propulsion during an SSTO vehicle's initial atmospheric flight phase and IEC fusion propulsion during its final exo-atmospheric flight phase is therefore being explored. Accomplished work is not yet sufficient for claiming such a vehicle's feasibility. But takeoff and propellant mass for an MHD airbreathing and IEC fusion vehicle could be as much as 25 and 40 percent less than one with ordinary airbreathing and IEC fusion; and as much as 50 and 70 percent less than SSTO takeoff and propellant mass with MHD airbreathing and chemical rocket propulsion. Thus this unusual combined cycle engine shows great promise for performance gains beyond contemporary combined-cycle airbreathing engines. {\copyright} 2005 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {{Froning Jr.}, H. D. and Miley, George H. and Luo, N. and Yang, Y. and Momota, Hiromu and Burton, E.},
 title = {Combining MHD airbreathing and fusion rocket propulsion for earth-to-orbit flight},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78951469391&doi=10.1063%2f1.1867263&partnerID=40&md5=feeaae131be1663196f1cb586ed20c03},
 pages = {1339--1344},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the Space Technology and Applications International Forum (STAIF 2005)},
 year = {2005},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1867263}
}


@inproceedings{Fujimoto.2007,
 abstract = {An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion device can produce copious amount of neutrons and protons from D-D and D-3He fusion reactions using D2 and 3He fuels. In IEC researches aiming at drastically enhanced neutron/proton yields, understanding the intensity distribution of fusion reactions is one of the most intensive interests. In order to make clear the spatial distribution of D-3He fusion reaction rate in an IEC device, we analyzed the experimentally observed proton count rates as function of collimation geometry by use of Most Likelihood-Expectation Maximization (ML-EM) method. Requirements of the measurement system were studied for reconstructing the D-3He reaction distribution, especially on the feedthrough surface that has been neglected so far, and an upgrade measurement system was developed and introduced in this study. From the experimental results, we found that more than 99 {\%} of the D-3He fusion reactions occur on the cathode and feedthrough surfaces. {\copyright}2007 IEEE.},
 author = {Fujimoto, T. and Oishi, T. and Zen, Heishun and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Intensity distribution of D-3He fusion reaction rate in an IEC device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-47749128871&doi=10.1109%2fFUSION.2007.4337870&partnerID=40&md5=5de611673538b6ef210584fc0c464a7d},
 keywords = {Atoms;Component;Count rates;D-3He fusion;Electrostatics;Feedthrough;Fusion devices;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;helium;Iec devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Intensity distributions;Measurement systems;Modernization;Neutron sources;Neutron/proton source;Protons;Reaction distributions;Reaction rates;Size distribution;Spatial distribution of},
 pages = {143--146},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the XXIInd International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2007.4337870}
}


@book{Furuta.2009,
 year = {2009},
 title = {Anti-personnel landmine detection for humanitarian demining: The Current Situation and Future Direction for Japanese Research and Development},
 url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84882-346-4},
 publisher = {{Springer London}},
 isbn = {1848823460},
 editor = {Furuta, Katsuhisa and Ishikawa, Jun}
}


@inproceedings{G.H.Miley.1992,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Studies Of Spherical Inertial-electrostatic Confinement},
 pages = {160},
 booktitle = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. 1992 IEEE International Conference on Plasma},
 year = {1992},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1992.697955}
}


@misc{Gardner.1972,
 author = {Gardner, Andrew L.},
 date = {1972},
 title = {Studies of charged-particle distributions in an electrostatic confinement system. Progress report, November 1, 1971--July 31, 1972},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4479895 http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/4479895/},
 address = {U.S. Department of Energy},
 institution = {{Technical Information Center}},
 doi = {10.2172/4479895}
}


@inproceedings{Gardner.1973,
 author = {Gardner, Andrew L. and Evans, Robert P.},
 title = {{\textquotedbl}Continuous{\textquotedbl} Measurement of the Frequency of Two Microwave Cavity Modes},
 pages = {1344},
 volume = {2},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1973}
}


@misc{Gardner.1974b,
 author = {Gardner, Andrew L.},
 date = {1974},
 title = {Studies of charged-particle distributions in an electrostatic confinement system. Progress report, August 1, 1972--March 31, 1974},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4298965 http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/4298965/},
 address = {U.S. Department of Energy},
 institution = {{Technical Information Center}},
 doi = {10.2172/4298965}
}


@article{Gardner.1975b,
 author = {Gardner, Andrew L. and Hatch, Dorian M. and Chan, Austen I.Y. and Evans, Robert P.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {Measurements on a spherical electrostatic confinement system employing six ion guns},
 url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00090.x https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00090.x},
 pages = {179--189},
 volume = {251},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
 doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00090.x}
}


@misc{Gardner.1976,
 author = {Gardner, Andrew L.},
 date = {1976},
 title = {Studies of charged particle distributions in an electrostatic confinement system. Progress report, 1 November 1971--31 January 1976},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4049858},
 address = {U.S. Department of Energy},
 number = {COO-2180-7},
 institution = {{Technical Information Center}},
 doi = {10.2172/4049858}
}


@article{Garrison.2013,
 author = {Garrison, Lauren M. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Effects of 30 keV Helium Irradiation on (110) Single Crystal Tungsten},
 pages = {216--220},
 volume = {64},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST13-A18079}
}


@article{Garrison.2016,
 abstract = {The Materials Irradiation Experiment (MITE-E) was constructed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Laboratory to test materials for potential use as plasma-facing materials (PFMs) in fusion reactors. PFMs in fusion reactors will be bombarded with x-rays, neutrons, and ions of hydrogen and helium. More needs to be understood about the interactions between the plasma and the materials to validate their use for fusion reactors. The MITE-E simulates some of the fusion reactor conditions by holding samples at temperatures up to 1000 °C while irradiating them with helium or deuterium ions with energies from 10 to 150 keV. The ion gun can irradiate the samples with ion currents of 20 \textgreek{m}A-500 \textgreek{m}A; the typical current used is 72 \textgreek{m}A, which is an average flux of 9 $\times$ 1014 ions/(cm2 s). The ion gun uses electrostatic lenses to extract and shape the ion beam. A variable power (1-20 W), steady-state, Nd:YAG laser provides additional heating to maintain a constant sample temperature during irradiations. The ion beam current reaching the sample is directly measured and monitored in real-time during irradiations. The ion beam profile has been investigated using a copper sample sputtering experiment. The MITE-E has successfully been used to irradiate polycrystalline and single crystal tungsten samples with helium ions and will continue to be a source of important data for plasma interactions with materials. {\copyright} 2016 Author(s).},
 author = {Garrison, Lauren M. and Zenobia, Samuel J. and Egle, Brian J. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2016},
 title = {The materials irradiation experiment for testing plasma facing materials at fusion relevant conditions},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85020172624&doi=10.1063%2f1.4959201&partnerID=40&md5=b25a4a30b24cb192b1665d3796b59a77},
 keywords = {Additional heating;Electrostatic lenses;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;helium;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion beam currents;ion beams;Ions;Irradiation;Materials irradiation;Materials testing;Neodymium lasers;Plasma facing materials;Plasma interactions;Polycrystalline materials;Reactor conditions;Sample temperature;Single crystals;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 volume = {87},
 number = {8},
 issn = {00346748},
 journal = {Review of Scientific Instruments},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4959201}
}


@article{Garrison.2018,
 abstract = {Zirconium diboride (ZrB2) has many potentially beneficial properties for fusion plasma-facing component application, but almost no data exist on the response of ZrB2 to ion irradiation. In this work, ZrB2 samples were irradiated with 30 keV He+ to fluences of 8.4 $\times$ 1021 and 5.0 $\times$ 1022 He/m2 at temperatures of 920, 1020, and 1120 K in the Materials Irradiation Experiment (MITE-E) at the University of Wisconsin Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (UW-IEC) Laboratory to simulate some of the conditions of plasma-facing components in fusion reactors. The samples irradiated to the higher fluence developed surface morphology changes in the ion irradiated zone including rough, porous, and ripple structures. The ZrB2 had similar mass loss as W irradiated to similar conditions. Additionally, the ZrB2 samples did not exhibit flaking as did the SiC samples previously irradiated to similar conditions. This first look at ZrB2 behavior under ion irradiation is promising and justifies further testing of this emerging ultra-high temperature ceramic material for fusion applications. {\copyright} 2018 Elsevier B.V.},
 author = {Garrison, Lauren M. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Hilmas, G. and Fahrenholtz, W. and {Meyer, H.M., III}},
 year = {2018},
 title = {The response of ZrB2 to simulated plasma-facing material conditions of He irradiation at high temperature},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85046816012&doi=10.1016%2fj.jnucmat.2018.04.016&partnerID=40&md5=efdaac03c45d566124bd76f45b4dc714},
 keywords = {Boron compounds;Ceramic materials;Fusion reactor divertors;Heat flux;helium;Helium ion;Helium ion irradiation;High heat flux;High temperature applications;Ion bombardment;Ions;Plasma facing materials;Plasma-facing material;Plasma-material interaction;Plasma-material interactions;Silicon carbide;Silicon compounds;Ultra-high temperature ceramic;Ultra-high-temperature ceramics;Vanadium compounds;Zirconium compounds},
 pages = {112--125},
 volume = {507},
 issn = {00223115},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Materials},
 doi = {10.1016/j.jnucmat.2018.04.016}
}


@article{Ghammas.2023,
 abstract = {Kinetic simulations have been performed on an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device. These simulations were performed using the particle-in-cell (PIC) method to analyze the behavior of ions in an IEC device and the effects of some parameters on the Confinement Time (CT). CT is an essential factor that significantly contributes to the IEC's performance as a nuclear fusion device. Using the PIC method, the geometry of a two-grided device with variable grid radius, the number of cathode grid rings, variable pressure and different dielectric thickness for the feed stalk was simulated. In this research, with the development of previous works, the interaction of particles was simulated and compared with previous results. The simulation results are in good agreement with the previous results. In these simulations, it was found that with the increase of the dielectric thickness of the feed stalk, the electric field was weakened and as a result, the confinement time was reduced. On the other hand, with the increase of the cathode radius, the confinement time increased. Using the results, an IEC device can be designed with higher efficiency and more optimal CT for ions.},
 author = {Ghammas, H. and {N Nasrabadi}, M.},
 year = {2023},
 title = {Investigating the effect of changing parameters in the IEC device in comparative study},
 url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1738573323004473},
 keywords = {Electric field;Grid;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron production;particle-in-cell method;Ring},
 issn = {1738-5733},
 journal = {Nuclear Engineering and Technology},
 doi = {10.1016/j.net.2023.09.038}
}


@article{Ghasemi.2013,
 abstract = {In this paper, the theoretical analysis regarding potential structure on the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices has been carried out. Negatively biased grid as cathode placed at the center of the device surrounded by anode is assumed. The device is an ion-injection system and electrons may be emitted from the surface of the cathode. So the existence of both ion and electron currents inside the cathode is considered. Dependence of radial potential well structure on some important parameters as the spreads in the normalized total and angular electron and ion energies, the ratio of ion circulating current to electron circulating current, ion perveance, and grid transparency are investigated by solving Poisson equation. {\copyright} 2012 Cambridge University Press.},
 author = {Ghasemi, M. and Habibi, M. and Amrollahi, R.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Prediction of potential well structure formed in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices with various parameters},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84877340935&doi=10.1017%2fS002237781200092X&partnerID=40&md5=1136c7a174953900fcc7283a913ad766},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Circulating current;Electron currents;Electrons;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion energies;Ions;Perveance;Poisson equation;Potential structure;Potential wells},
 pages = {295--303},
 volume = {79},
 number = {3},
 issn = {00223778},
 journal = {Journal of Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1017/S002237781200092X}
}


@proceedings{Goto.1999,
 year = {1999},
 title = {Proceedings of The US-Japan Workshop and The Satellite Meeting of ITC-9 on Physics of High Beta Plasma Confinement in Innovative Fusion System, NIFS-PROC-41},
 editor = {Goto, S. and Yoshimura, S.}
}


@article{Gough.2009,
 abstract = {There are two interrelated requirements for achieving a sustainable modern world: 1) the availability of clean energy sources, and 2) the ability to close the materials cycle from use to reuse. Nature has always operated on a closed cycle process powered by solar energy. After the industrial revolution humans increasingly embarked upon an open cycle process extracting resources from the earth, dispersing them, and depositing the wastes into the earth's life support systems of air, water, and soil. Fusion energy has unique capabilities for addressing the root cause of the resulting energy-environment-economy dilemma that our planet now faces. We propose an industrial evolutionary path for solving the dilemma based on the hydrogen-boron (p-uB) fusion fuel cycle and the application of ultra-high temperature plasmas (fusion plasmas) for materials recycling. This concept is known as the Fusion Torch and would return waste material back to its original 92 elemental states. An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement fusion device is proposed due to its characteristic non-Maxwellian plasma which enables burningp-B11.},
 author = {Gough, William C. and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {The iec fusion-plasma torch - A path for closing the materials cycle},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-68949132802&doi=10.13182%2fFST09-A8952&partnerID=40&md5=ceb764e42295b3202c62f682f7703f73},
 keywords = {Clean energy sources;Evolutionary path;Fusion plasmas;Fusion reactions;Industrial revolutions;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Materials recycling;Maxwellian plasmas;Solar energy;Ultrahigh temperature},
 pages = {501--506},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-A8952}
}


@article{Gruenwald.2017,
 abstract = {The aim of this work is to propose a novel scheme for a small scale aneutronic fusion reactor. This new reactor type makes use of the advantages of combining laser driven plasma acceleration and electrostatic confinement fusion. An intense laser beam is used to create a lithium-proton plasma with high density, which is then collimated and focused into the centre of the fusion reaction chamber. The basic concept presented here is based on the Li-7-proton fusion reaction. However, the physical and technological fundamentals may generally as well be applied to B-11-proton fusion. The former fusion reaction path offers higher energy yields while the latter has larger fusion cross sections. Within this paper a technological realisation of such a fusion device, which allows a steady state operation with highly energetic, well collimated ion beam, is presented. It will be demonstrated that the energetic break even can be reached with this device by using a combination of already existing technologies.},
 author = {Gruenwald, J.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Proposal for a novel type of small scale aneutronic fusion reactor},
 keywords = {Electrostatic confinement;Fusion;fusion technology;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT},
 volume = {59},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07413335},
 journal = {Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/1361-6587/59/2/025011}
}


@article{Gruenwald.2020,
 abstract = {This paper discusses the suitability of proton sources and the appropriate targets for lithium-proton and boron-proton fusion reactions. Protons are emitted by a hydrogen-based source that is exposed to an intense laser beam. The protons are sent onto lithium or boron targets where fusion reactions are triggered. A comparison is made between solid, liquid and gaseous proton sources and the required laser intensity. Furthermore, the main characteristics of the lithium and boron targets are assessed. It is shown that a hybrid target made of lithium and boron offers opportunities to considerably enhance the fusion yield.},
 author = {Gruenwald, J. and Teodorescu, C.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Novel target design for a laser-driven aneutronic fusion reactor},
 url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0920379619308932},
 pages = {111397},
 volume = {151},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/j.fusengdes.2019.111397}
}


@phdthesis{Grush.1973,
 author = {Grush, William Harry},
 year = {1973},
 title = {Electron Density Measurement of an Electrostatically Confined Spherically Symmetric Helium Plasma Using Microwave Cavity Resonance Shift},
 school = {{The Pennsylvania State University}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1990,
 abstract = {The biased probe, as a unique extension of the Langmuir probe, offers several advantages in measuring the charged--particle flux versus position in a beam--dominated plasma such as encountered in the spherical electrostatic inertial confinement (SEIC) device. The probe operates in a non--Maxwellian and locally non--neutral plasma, where the Debye length is large compared to the probe itself. Its conical particle acceptance extension minimizes the measurement error caused by the distortion of the SEIC potential structures. Either the ion or electron flux can be measured using the proper bias on its inner collecting element.},
 author = {Gu, Y. B. and Miley, G. H.},
 title = {Biased probe for plasma diagnostics in spherical electrostatic inertial plasma confinement},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {2902--2904},
 isbn = {0034-6748},
 booktitle = {Review of Scientific Instruments : Rev. Sci. Instrum},
 year = {1990},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1141768}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1992,
 abstract = {A new e--beam probe is developed to study the potential structure inside a SEIC device [G. H. Miley et al., Fusion Technol. 19, 840 (1991)]. The device has a spherical grid negatively biased inside a spherical vacuum chamber. Ions oscillate through the highly transparent grid, forming a single potential well inside the cathode. The potential in turn attracts electrons from ionization of background gas. The measurement of this complex potential profile is the objective of this work. The e--beam probe offers advantages over the e--emitting probes and the laser heterodyne method. It minimizes perturbations (versus a physical probe) and detects smaller charge density variations than possible with laser techniques. The present e--beam probe utilizes a higher voltage and a modified focus compared to the earlier version used by Swanson [Swanson et al., Phys. Fluids 16, 1939 (1973)]. The characteristic e--beam deflection patterns observed are compared to predictions from an impulse approximation model.},
 author = {Gu, Y. B. and Miley, G. H. and Turner, L.},
 title = {e--beam probe potential diagnostic in spherical electrostatic--inertial plasma confinement (SEIC) (abstract)},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {4731},
 isbn = {0034-6748},
 booktitle = {Review of Scientific Instruments : Rev. Sci. Instrum},
 year = {1992},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1143622}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1992b,
 author = {Gu, Y. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Virial Theorem Limitation to Spherical Electrostatic Inertial Confinement Fusion (SEIC)},
 volume = {37},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1992}
}


@phdthesis{Gu.1994,
 author = {Gu, Yibin B.},
 year = {1994},
 title = {Self-Generating Electron-Beam Method for Fusion in a Spherical Electrostatic Inertial Confinement Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Gu.1994b,
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Javedani, Jalal B. and Miley, George H.},
 year = {1994},
 title = {A Portable Cylindrical Electrostatic Fusion Device for Neutronic Tomography},
 pages = {929--932},
 volume = {26},
 number = {3P2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST94-A40273}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1994c,
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, G. H.},
 title = {Physics and Effects of Grid Electric Field Perturbation on Spherical Electrostatic-Inertial Confinement Fusion},
 editor = {Stott, P. E. and Joffrin, E. and Platz, P.},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st European Physical Society Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1995,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion confines high energy ions in a spherical potential well where convergence in a central `core' region yields a high fusion rate. When operated in steady-state, the measured D-D neutron yield for a 30-cm diameter (7.5-cm diameter grid) IEC varies linearly with current I, giving approximately 106 neutrons/sec at 15 mA and 70 kV. Theoretically the yield should scale as a power law in I at higher currents, being proportional to I2 in a pure beam-beam fusion regime. This favorable scaling, plus the need for short neutron bursts for some applications, motivates the development of a pulsed IEC. The present pulsed circuit provides amp-level pulses with tens of ms duration, simulating a quasi-steady state operation while avoiding arcing and controlling voltage excursions. Results demonstrating that the yield approximately I2 for 15-150 mA are presented, along with an approximate purveyance criterion for initial double potential well formation.},
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Miley, George H. and DelMedico, Susan G.},
 title = {Pulsed IEC neutron generator},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0029422953&partnerID=40&md5=0a341829c4236838a5405c97bce35339},
 keywords = {Fusion reactors;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Pulse generators},
 pages = {1500--1505},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 1995 10th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference. Part 1 (of 2)},
 year = {1995}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1995b,
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Heck, P. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Ion focus via microchannels in spherical inertial-electrostatic confinement and its pulsed experiment results},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1995.533492}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1995c,
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Spherical IEC Device as a Tunable X-Ray Source},
 pages = {1851/8R.37},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1995}
}


@article{Gu.1996,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion confines high energy ions in potential wells, where their increased energy and density yields a high fusion rate. Studies of the IEC at the University of Illinois (UI) initially concentrated on steady-state operation where neutron yields of approx.106 D-D n/s are routinely obtained. However, the development of a pulsed configuration has been undertaken to provide higher neutron yields. Preliminary experiments have demonstrated I2 scaling during pulsed operation when the perveance threshold of 2.2 mA/kV3/2 is exceeded. Based on these results, it appears that the present IEC could be operated with 3-A, 100-kV repetitive pulses with a 10{\%} duty factor to produce neutron yields of approx.1010 neutrons/second.},
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Williams, M. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Miley, George H.},
 year = {1996},
 title = {Pulsed operation of spherical inertial-electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0030073864&doi=10.13182%2ffst96-a11963135&partnerID=40&md5=6c4ef84ead92e21081fcd01f9806371c},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric currents;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;ion density;Ions;neutron yield;Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Plasma density;Pulsed operation;Reaction kinetics},
 pages = {1342--1346},
 volume = {30},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst96-a11963135}
}


@inproceedings{Gu.1997,
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Overview of IEC Research},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the DOE Workshop on Innovative Confinement Concepts},
 year = {1997}
}


@phdthesis{Gu.1998,
 author = {Gu, Yibin B.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Experimental Study of Proton Rate Density in a Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Gu.2000,
 abstract = {The spherical inertial-electrostatic confinement (SIEC) concept is designed to focus and accelerate ions and electrons radially inward towards the center of a negatively biased, highly transparent spherical grid. The converging ions create a high-density plasma core where a high fusion rate occurs. In addition, under proper conditions, the ion and electron flows create a space-charge induced 'double potential' well (a negative potential well nested inside a positive potential well). This structure traps high-energy ions within the virtual anode created by the double potential, providing a high fusion density in the trap volume. The present experiment was designed to verify double potential well formation and trapping by a measurement of the radial birth profile of energetic (3-MeV) protons produced by D-D fusion reactions in a deuterium discharge. This experiment was designed to operate at high perveance (0.4 to 1.4 mA/kV3/2), where formation of a double well is predicted theoretically. Additional steps to aid well formation included: use of the unique Star mode of operation to obtain ion beam focusing down to approx. 1.6 H the ballistic limit and the incorporation of a second electrically 'floating' grid (in addition to the focusing/accelerating cathode grid) to reduce the ion radial energy spread to {\&}lt; 10{\%}. The existence of the potential well was then demonstrated by measurement of a two-peak radial D-D proton source rate profile. A capillary proton collimator was developed for the spatial measurement of the escaping protons. This data was then unfolded to obtain the radial proton source rate profile. This profile in turn provided a characterization of the potential-well structure. A two-peak proton-rate density profile was observed at higher perveances, uniquely demonstrating the evolution of a double potential well for perveances {\&}gt; 0.34 mA/kV3/2. As the perveance increased, the depth of the double well also increased. At the maximum perveance studied, 1.38 mA/kV3/2 (corresponding to 80 mA and 15 kV), the negative potential well depth, corresponding to the measured proton-rate density, was estimated to be 22{\%}-27{\%} of the applied cathode voltage. This represents the first conclusive demonstration of double well formation in an SIEC, since prior measurements by other researchers typically yielded marginal or negative results.},
 author = {Gu, Yibin B. and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Experimental study of potential structure in a spherical IEC fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0033739328&doi=10.1109%2f27.842929&partnerID=40&md5=1204e02e84c221c5c8f5fb441be340fd},
 keywords = {Capillary proton collimators;Deuterium;Double potential well;Electric space charge;Electrons;Inertial confinement fusion;ion beams;Ions;Particle accelerators;Perveance;Plasma density;Protons;Spherical inertial electrostatic confinement concept;Star mode;Vlasov-Poisson equation},
 pages = {331--346},
 volume = {28},
 number = {1},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/27.842929}
}


@article{Gummersall.2013,
 abstract = {Orbital theory simulation was applied to an electron trap that uses a cube shaped magnetic cusp known as a Polywell device. The purpose of this device is to create a virtual cathode in order to achieve nuclear fusion using inertial electrostatic confinement. Analytical expressions of the electron confinement time and average position within the device were obtained in terms of the current in the field coils, the dimensions of the device, and the kinetic energy of the electrons. Comparisons with numerical simulations showed good agreement over a parameter range that spanned several orders of magnitude for the current. In addition, power loss from electrons exiting the trap was estimated in order to obtain minimum power requirement to maintain a virtual cathode within the device. {\copyright} 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.},
 author = {Gummersall, David V. and Carr, Matthew and Cornish, Scott and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Scaling law of electron confinement in a zero beta polywell device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84887250580&doi=10.1063%2f1.4824005&partnerID=40&md5=c59d7bf28d59965843da25cc9efc1931},
 keywords = {Analytical expressions;Cathodes;Electron confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Kinetics;nuclear fusion;Orders of magnitude;Parameter range;Plasma confinement;Power requirement;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {20},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4824005}
}


@phdthesis{Gummersall.2015,
 author = {Gummersall, David V.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Scaling laws of electron confinement and power losses in zero and low beta Polywell devices},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Guskov.2017,
 abstract = {We discuss the possibilities of producing a high-power source of thermonuclear neutrons under inertial electrostatic confinement of a plasma in the process of periodic oscillations of hydrogen isotope nuclei in the field of a virtual cathode of an electrostatic trap. The investigations are performed using analytical scaling relations, which explicitly give the dependence of a neutron yield on the electrostatic trap parameters under various operating conditions. {\copyright} 2017 Kvantovaya Elektronika and Turpion Ltd.},
 author = {Gus'kov, S. Y. and Kurilenkov, Yu K.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Scaling relations for a neutron yield in a plasma with inertial electrostatic confinement},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85019011483&doi=10.1070%2fQEL16330&partnerID=40&md5=1d2eb4788f479623f72ca8cad7705813},
 keywords = {Analytical scaling;Electrostatic trap;Electrostatics;High-power source;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Operating condition;Oscillating plasma spheres;Periodic oscillation;Plasma oscillations;Plasma-spheres;Scaling relations;Source of thermonuclear neutrons},
 pages = {327--329},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {10637818},
 journal = {Quantum Electronics},
 doi = {10.1070/QEL16330}
}


@inproceedings{H.J.Ju.2006,
 author = {{H. -J. Ju} and {J. -H. Park} and {K. -C. Ko}},
 title = {The Effect of Grid Cathode Geometry on Neutron Production Rate in SCBF Device},
 pages = {642--645},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the XXIInd International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/DEIV.2006.357384}
}


@article{H.J.Ju.2010,
 author = {Ju, H.-J. and Kim, B. and Park, J.-H. and Ko, K.-C.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Optimal Design of a Grid-Cathode Structure in a Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion Device by Response-Surface Methodology Combined With Experimental Design},
 pages = {2548--2553},
 volume = {38},
 number = {10},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2010.2061868}
}


@article{HajiEbrahimi.2013,
 abstract = {In this research effect of gas pressure, discharge current and cathode voltage on the neutron production rate in IR-IECF device is studied. In the experiment discharge current from 20 to 100 mA was tunable by deuterium gas pressure from 6.4 $\times$ 10-3 mbar to 1.7 $\times$ 10-2 mbar and cathode voltage was changed from 20 to 80 kV. Moreover, maximum value of neutron production rate can be achieved in optimum pressure and discharge current at a constant voltage. {\copyright} 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.},
 author = {{Haji Ebrahimi}, E. and Amrollahi, R. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Torabi, M. and Sedaghat, Movahhed M. and Sabri, R. and Pourshahab, B. and Damideh, V.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {The influence of cathode voltage and discharge current on neutron production rate of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IR-IECF)},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84878563122&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-012-9524-6&partnerID=40&md5=ed8a2f8773cb8bf5b455b8978617543b},
 keywords = {Cathode voltages;Cathodes;Constant voltage;Deuterium gas pressure;Discharge currents;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC);Neutron generator;Neutron generators;Neutron production rate (NPR);Neutron production rates;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Plasma interactions},
 pages = {62--65},
 volume = {32},
 number = {1},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-012-9524-6}
}


@inproceedings{Hammond.2000,
 abstract = {Rapid access to any point in the solar system requires advanced propulsion concepts that will provide extremely high specific impulse, low specific power, and a high thrust-to-power ratio. Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion is one of many exciting concepts emerging through propulsion and power research in laboratories across the nation which will determine the future direction of space exploration. This is part of a series of papers that discuss different applications of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion concept for both in-space and terrestrial use. IEC will enable tremendous advances in faster travel times within the solar system. The technology is currently under investigation for proof of concept and transitioning into the first prototype units for commercial applications. In addition to use in propulsion for space applications, terrestrial applications include desalinization plants, high energy neutron sources for radioisotope generation, high flux sources for medical applications, proton sources for specialized medical applications, and tritium production.},
 author = {Hammond, Walter E. and Coventry, Matt and Hanson, John and Hrbud, Ivana and Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H.},
 title = {IEC fusion: The future power and propulsion system for space},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {1572--1580},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {2000},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1290982}
}


@misc{Hampsink.2023,
 author = {Hampsink, T.F.H. and Harmsma, S. and Spekman, J.P.B.},
 date = {2023},
 title = {The Fundamentals and Construction of IEC Fusion Devices},
 institution = {{TU Eindhoven}}
}


@article{Hardiment.2019,
 abstract = {In this paper, we characterize a Transparent Cathode Discharge (TCD), a type of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) plasma, operated in helium and argon in the pressure range of 1-100 Pa. The discharge was investigated using a combination of electrical and optical diagnostic techniques. The imaging of the discharge indicated distinct operating regimes related to the background gas pressure, with each mode being characterized by different patterns of optical emission. The spectroscopic analysis of the optical emission showed that this mode structure represented an electron-driven discharge at higher pressures, and a discharge sustained by the activity of energetic heavy particles at lower pressures. The high-pressure discharge is shown to be assisted by the hollow cathode effect toward its low-pressure limit, and the visible color of emission from the discharge in helium is found to provide a convenient diagnosis of active species. The identification of a stable discharge mode in which energetic heavy particles are responsible for collisional processes has the potential to lead to new industrial applications based on this novel heavy particle-driven reactive plasma source. {\copyright} 1973-2012 IEEE.},
 author = {Hardiment, T. and Bowden, M. D.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Mode Structure of a Transparent Cathode Discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85068713951&doi=10.1109%2fTPS.2019.2919908&partnerID=40&md5=11fd8a53664aadb113a0bcc4914553b9},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Collisional plasmas;Collisional process;Electron sources;glow discharge;Glow discharges;helium;High pressure discharge;High pressure effects;Hollow cathode effect;hollow-cathode effect;Inertial electrostatic confinement;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Ion bombardment;Ion impact;ion-impact collision;Light emission;Operating regimes;Optical data processing;Optical diagnostic techniques;Plasma;Plasmas;Spectroscopic analysis;Transparent cathode},
 pages = {3124--3133},
 volume = {47},
 number = {7},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2019.2919908}
}


@article{Hardiment.2020b,
 abstract = {We measured current-voltage and optical emission for self-sustained discharges obtained using two forms of cylindrical wire grid cathodes, having either an enclosed or an open end. Enclosure of the open end extended the low-pressure range for a {\textquotedbl}cathode-confined{\textquotedbl} or CC mode, from around 12.5 Pa to below 3.5 Pa, conditions at which a {\textquotedbl}beam{\textquotedbl} mode discharge otherwise occurs. The modification also caused a dark space to envelop the glow within the cathode, bridged by a bright emission resembling plume for the CC mode, and an electron beam for the beam mode. We explain these results by treating the CC mode as a hollow cathode discharge, for which only \textgreek{g}-electrons that suffer inelastic loss before escaping the cathode grid are significant. For the two cathodes, respective degrees of electron confinement possible for the different sheath configurations predict the low-pressure ranges, and the calculated values of cathode fall for self-sustenance by the hollow cathode effect agree approximately with the experimental voltages across a range of pressures. Plume- and beam-like forms of emission indicate inherently different electron energies, consistent with bulk transport across potential distributions characteristic to the mode. Where these features bridge the enclosed cathode boundary, this shows existence of an otherwise closed potential surface within the cathode, confirmed by the geometry of the plume-CC mode configuration, where the relationship between the main glow and plume interface surfaces indicates the arrangement to self-organize in a state of non-ambipolar current flow. Similarities in the mode structure reported elsewhere for related discharges indicates the findings to be relevant for these also.},
 author = {Hardiment, T. and Bowden, M. D.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Influence of cathode grid geometry upon mode structure of a transparent cathode discharge},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.5143310},
 pages = {043506},
 volume = {27},
 number = {4},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5143310}
}


@article{Hardiment.2021,
 abstract = {We investigate optical emission from a low-pressure 'beam mode' inertial electrostatic confinement glow discharge, created using cylindrical grid electrodes, having cathode inside a grounded, concentric anode. Spectral line distributions were measured in helium from this and a hollow cathode mode, with four lines emitted from singlet and triplet states with n = 3 and L = P and D compared against simple models for impact excitation by electrons and by ions and neutrals, suggesting much beam mode emission is caused by fast neutrals, and a significant component also caused by electrons. Beam mode emission occurs in a pattern of radial lines, that pass through aligned electrode apertures and extend across the chamber. Shadows cast by the electrode wires indicate electrically-neutral, beam-like sources of excitation, that cross the electrode assembly from bright radial lines in the opposing inter-electrode space, and calculated potential distributions show lensing surfaces around the anode grid apertures, focussing for inward-drifting ions. These indicate the emission pattern is caused by radially-convergent ion beams, and co-linear beams of fast neutrals produced in these. Emission was also observed with various alterations made to the electrode arrangement: with the anode removed, no beams were observed; with the cathode apertures rotated out of phase with those of the anode, bright radial beams between the electrodes followed the distribution of anode apertures; similar beams appeared with the grid cathode replaced by a solid version. In these experiments, progressive obstruction of pathways through the cathode caused increasing reduction in the beam pattern of emission beyond the anode radius, and in discharge perveance at similar pressure and voltage. Beam-like emission was also observed for a parallel-planar configuration, in which a cathode grid was held between two identical anode grids. The beam mode is shown to be a convergent, anode-focussed ion beam discharge, distinct to the star mode described elsewhere. {\copyright} 2021 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Hardiment, T. and Bowden, M. D.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Optical emission from a 'beam mode' transparent cathode glow discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85110655463&doi=10.1088%2f1361-6595%2fac0b57&partnerID=40&md5=d6813df7f9e0107224098c84cb2a4e01},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cathodes;Electrode arrangement;Electrode assemblies;fast neutrals;Focussed ion beams;glow discharge;Glow discharges;grid focussing;helium spectroscopy;Inertial electrostatic confinement;ion beams;Ions;Light emission;optical emission;Planar configurations;Potential distributions;Singlet and triplet state;Transparent cathode},
 volume = {30},
 number = {7},
 issn = {09630252},
 journal = {Plasma Sources Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1088/1361-6595/ac0b57}
}


@inproceedings{Hasegawa.2017,
 author = {Hasegawa, Jun and Okutomo, Kohei and Itagaki, Tomonobu and Hotta, Eiki and Takakura, Kei and Kohno, Toshiyuki},
 title = {Numerical analysis of particle dynamics in a linear inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 volume = {NIFS-PROC-113},
 booktitle = {Symposium on {\grqq}Pulsed Power and High-Density Plasma and its Applications{\textquotedbl}},
 year = {2017}
}


@article{Hasegawa.2018,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion devices have great advantages for their use as commercially available compact neutron sources The principle, history, and recent research activities of the IEC fusion devices are briefly introduced The prospect of the IEC neutron source is also discussed while comparing it with other small neutron sources (author)},
 author = {Hasegawa, Jun and Hotta, Eiki and Takakura, Kei and Miyadera, Haruo},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Recent progress on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron sources},
 url = {http://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:50004645},
 pages = {589--593},
 volume = {46},
 number = {10},
 journal = {Reza Kenkyu}
}


@inproceedings{Hashimoto.2012,
 author = {Hashimoto, Genki and Masuda, Kai and Kajiwara, Taiju and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 title = {Effect of Anode Size on Neutron Production Rate in a Glow-Discharge-Driven Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2012f.0.661.0}
}


@article{Hedditch.2015,
 abstract = {Theory for a gridded inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion system is presented, which shows a net energy gain is possible if the grid is magnetically shielded from ion impact. A simplified grid geometry is studied, consisting of two negatively biased coaxial current-carrying rings, oriented such that their opposing magnetic fields produce a spindle cusp. Our analysis indicates that better than break-even performance is possible even in a deuterium-deuterium system at bench-top scales. The proposed device has the unusual property that it can avoid both the cusp losses of traditional magnetic fusion systems and the grid losses of traditional IEC configurations. {\"i}?`{\textonehalf} 2015 AIP Publishing LLC.},
 author = {Hedditch, J. and Bowden-Reid, Richard and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Fusion energy in an inertial electrostatic confinement device using a magnetically shielded grid},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84944754834&doi=10.1063%2f1.4933213&partnerID=40&md5=8f582792ca18ca01310a7d802cd95f65},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Deuterium deuteriums;Electrostatics;Fusion energy;Grid loss;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Ion bombardment;Ion impact;Magnetic fusion;Net energy gains},
 volume = {22},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.4933213}
}


@inproceedings{Herdrich.,
 abstract = {More than three decades of experience have been gained in the field of electric propulsion at the Institute of Space Systems (Institut f{\"u}r Raumfahrtsysteme = IRS). Recent developments within the field of electric propulsion are summarized and foremost results are highlighted. The various types of electric propulsion systems are not considered as to be competitive. Here, system analysis shows that optimum parameter such as the required exhaust velocity or specific impulse result taking into account both the mission profile and system related sizes such as the power conditioner efficiency, the thrust efficiency and the specific mass of the corresponding power unit. Correspondingly, ion thrusters, Hall thrusters, thermal arcjets, or magnetoplasmadynamics (MPD) thrusters are preferable depending on the mission. In addition, several advanced plasma propulsion designs have been developed and characterized at IRS in the past 10 years. Among them are the hybrid thruster TIHTUS, steady state applied field thrusters and the iMPD IMAX. These concepts have been experimentally and numerically characterized and show promising potential for future missions. The paper will discuss the design and the operational features of the devices. In addition, more advanced systems are under investigation. Here, a focus is in the field of fusion driven systems and M2P2 (magnetic sail systems).},
 author = {Herdrich, Georg H. and Bauder, Uwe and Boxberger, Adam and Eichhorn, Christoph and Lau, Matthias and Pfeiffer, Marcel and Stindl, Constanze and Syring, Constanze and Wollenhaupt, Birk and Roser, Hans and Fasoulas, Stefanos and Petkow, Dejan and Sch{\"o}nherr, Tony and Komurasaki, Kimiya},
 title = {Overview on Electric Propulsion Developments at IRS},
 keywords = {Overview},
 pages = {IEPC-2011-311},
 booktitle = {32nd International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2011}
}


@article{Herdrich.2013,
 abstract = {Several advanced plasma propulsion designs have been developed and characterized at IRS in the past years. Among them are the hybrid thruster TIHTUS, the steady state applied-field thrusters AF-MPD ZT1 and ZT2 and advanced iMPD designs. These concepts show promising potential for future missions. The paper will discuss the designs and their operational features. In addition, more advanced systems are under investigation, among others fusion systems and magnetic sail systems. These systems are not likely to see in-flight testing within the next years, but they offer opportunities for investigation potentially applicable to terrestrial designs. {\copyright} 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Herdrich, Georg H. and Bauder, Uwe and Boxberger, Adam and Gabrielli, R. A. and Lau, Matthias and Petkow, Dejan and Pfeiffer, Marcel and Syring, Constanze and Fasoulas, Stefanos},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Advanced plasma (propulsion) concepts at IRS},
 url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0042207X12001121},
 keywords = {Advanced space propulsion;Plasma modeling and simulations;Plasma systems},
 pages = {36--41},
 volume = {88},
 number = {1},
 issn = {0042207X},
 journal = {Vacuum},
 doi = {10.1016/j.vacuum.2012.02.032}
}


@inproceedings{Herdrich.2015,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement in non-fusion mode is investigated for space propulsion applications. As part of this research, the Saha equation has been applied in this model to obtain the partition of particles. In addition, this study presents an assessment of loss mechanism modeling, including ionization, Bremsstrahlung, particle-grid collision, and excitation losses. Moreover, a thrust model for the jet extraction out of an IEC device is presented. Solution approaches are presented for a conical jet profile neglecting collisions and an approximated profile with an exponential function including collisions as electron impact ionization and ion-ion collisions. Nomenclature \textgreek{D}E {\'i} µ{\'i}$\pm${\'i} µ{\'i}$\pm$— = energy difference between j and k excitation stage \textgreek{F}well = grid potential difference \textgreek{h}e,i = transparency coefficient of grid \textgreek{l}k = wavelength at excitation stage k {\'i} µ{\'i}{\frqq}{\textonequarter} = heat capacitance ratio \textgreek{u} = collision frequency Ajk = Einstein coefficient cs = sound speed Ei = ionization energy h = Plank constant Isp = specific impulse kB = Boltzmann constant kion = ionization rate coefficient ncore = particle density of plasma core ng = particle density around cathode ni = particle density of ions ni = particle density of electrons Pbrems = Bremsstrahlung loss Pexc = excitation power loss Pion = ionization power loss Pjet = power of jet rA = radius of anode rC = radius of cathode rc = radius of core red,in = radius of inner edge region red,out = radius of outer edge region rg = radius of cathode rjet = radius of the cross-section of jet Sbrems = Bremsstrahlung radiation constant Te = electron temperature U = partition function u = velocity profile along jet exhaust direction xs = position of sonic point Zi = ion charge state Zeff = effective charge IEC = Inertial Electrostatic Confinement IRS = Institut f{\"u}r Raumfahrtsysteme},
 author = {Herdrich, Georg H. and Syring, Constanze and Torgau, Tobias and Chan, Yung-An and Petkow, Dejan},
 title = {An Approach for Thrust and Losses in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Devices for Electric Propulsion Applications},
 pages = {IEPC-2015-83},
 booktitle = {34th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2015}
}


@inproceedings{Herdrich.2017,
 author = {Herdrich, Georg H. and Binder, T. and Boxberger, Adam and Chan, Yung-An and Ehresmann, M. and Harmansa, N. and Montag, Christoph and Romano, Francesco and Skalden, J. and Fasoulas, Stefanos and Komurasaki, K. and Sch{\"o}nherr, Tony},
 title = {Research and Development on Electric and Advanced Propulsion at IRS},
 pages = {IEPC-2017-480},
 booktitle = {35th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2017}
}


@inproceedings{Herdrich.b,
 author = {Herdrich, Georg H. and Syring, Constanze and Pfeiffer, Marcel and Petkow, Dejan},
 title = {Kinetic modeling of the jet extraction mechanism in spherical IEC Devices},
 pages = {IEPC-2013-416},
 booktitle = {33rd International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2013}
}


@phdthesis{Hermans.2013,
 author = {Hermans, E.C.G},
 year = {2013},
 title = {The Design and Optimization of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 url = {repository.tue.nl/759014},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Hermens.2019,
 abstract = {With the aim of determining the ion direction, Doppler spectroscopy is carried out in a Farnsworth fusor with a spherical cathode grid during star mode operation. The Doppler shift of Balmer-\textgreek{a} radiation from excited deuterium atoms (D$\ast$) is analyzed to find the kinetic energy spectrum. Diverging D$\ast$ is measured at a cathode voltage of -20 kV, with currents between 0.5 mA and 3.4 mA, and in the pressure regime of 1.6 Pa-2.6 Pa. D$\ast$ is produced during a charge exchange reaction of fast deuterium ions with the background gas. The measured spectra can only be formed via diverging ions due to momentum conservation during this charge exchange reaction. Dominant blue shifts coming from measurement locations inside microchannels moving toward the observer and red shifted spectra coming from microchannels moving away from the observer prove this diverging ion motion. A kinetic energy distribution of D$\ast$ over different longitudinal positions inside the microchannel is measured at a pressure of (1.7 $\pm$ 0.1) Pa. The results indicate an increase in D$\ast$ velocity from the center of the cathode toward the cathode edge. This can be explained by a virtual anode, which accelerates ions created in the center of the cathode outward. These results disagree with the converging ion model but could be explained by the hollow cathode model. {\copyright} 2019 Author(s).},
 author = {Hermens, J. and Jaspers, R. and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Measurements of diverging ion motion in an inertial electrostatic confinement device using Doppler spectroscopy},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85073235907&doi=10.1063%2f1.5119285&partnerID=40&md5=fadf1ec82a4cd4ae46b99884d1cc493f},
 keywords = {Blue shift;Cathodes;Charge exchange reactions;Charge transfer;Chemical reactions;Deuterium;Doppler spectroscopy;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Kinetic energy;Kinetic energy distributions;Kinetic energy spectra;Kinetics;Measurement locations;Microchannels;Momentum conservations;Red Shift;Spherical cathodes},
 volume = {26},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5119285}
}


@article{Higashi.2003,
 abstract = {The effects of operating gas pressure on a Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device are investigated. First we did glow discharge experiments, and we obtained 1.8 $\times$ 106 neutrons production per second with 45-kV, 44-mA discharge at 1.2 Pa. Next we modified the device and tried to reduce the operating gas pressure with an ion source, aimed to increase neutron production. Although the discharge currents are small, we can make steady discharges at less than 0.1 Pa. The neutron production rates per current are larger than those of glow discharge at higher pressure. We consider it should suggest the validity of reducing operating pressure in IECF devices.},
 author = {Higashi, T. and Tomizawa, T. and Daino, M. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Preliminary results of low pressure discharge experiments of a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device aimed for a small neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0041786685&doi=10.13182%2fFST03-A394&partnerID=40&md5=887af73728d3c317ffc971688e0a1145},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Electrostatics;Glow discharges;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device;ion beams;Ion energy;neutron production rate;Neutron sources;Pressure effects},
 pages = {544--548},
 volume = {44},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST03-A394}
}


@article{Hirsch.1967,
 abstract = {The nonmagnetic, inertial-electrostatic confinement of ionized gases in spherical geometry is discussed theoretically, and associated experiments are described. Assuming monoenergetic ion and electron distribution functions, the Poisson equation for bipolar currents is solved numerically. The results indicate spatially periodic solutions which respresent the alternate formation of virtual anodes and virtual cathodes. Particle pressures are found to vary approximately as the inverse square of the radius and extremely high electric fields are indicated. Near the center of the spherical cavity, there exists a high-density, high-energy region, which may be of controlled fusion interest. The experimental apparatus consists of a hollow spherical cathode concentrically placed within a spherical anode on which six ion guns are located. Steady, reproducible operation up to -150 kV and 60 mA yields a copious neutron emission, a part of which originates from a luminous spherical region within the cathode. After crowbar of the main power supply, approximately 1016 particles are released from within the cathode. This number is significantly greater than the 1012-1014 ions/cm-3 calculated from the fusion rate. The difference is attributed to the formation of two or more virtual anodes. A bremsstrahlung collimation study indicates a spatially periodic emission pattern, suggesting the formation of at least two virtual anodes, the outer of which is about 2.5 cm in diameter. No instabilities have been observed. {\copyright} 1967 The American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L.},
 year = {1967},
 title = {Inertial-electrostatic confinement of ionized fusion gases},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36849107436&doi=10.1063%2f1.1709162&partnerID=40&md5=b49ea64f9dba534a57909826979878b3},
 pages = {4522--4534},
 volume = {38},
 number = {11},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1709162}
}


@article{Hirsch.1968,
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L.},
 year = {1968},
 title = {Erratum: Inertial-electrostatic confinement of ionized fusion gases (Journal of Applied Physics (1967) 38, (4526))},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36849105156&doi=10.1063%2f1.1656917&partnerID=40&md5=40fd62aab1c72706200c4574bb555967},
 pages = {4047},
 volume = {39},
 number = {8},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1656917}
}


@article{Hirsch.1968b,
 abstract = {Steady electron injection produced a stable, negative electrostatic potential well at the center of a hollow, open, 6.35--cm--diam spherical anode. Even though the primary electron source was localized, electron flow became spherically symmetric at anode currents of the order of 10 mA for anode potentials up to 1.0 kV. Well defined and reproducible oscillations were observed over a lower current range. These oscillations ceased and certain collector characteristics abruptly changed at currents which varied as , suggesting space charge saturation. An electron beam probe verified the presence of the well and measured its depth. The data showed correlation with a simple model and demonstrated the ease with which such wells can be produced. {\copyright} 1968 American Institute of Physics},
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L.},
 year = {1968},
 title = {Experimental Studies of a Deep, Negative, Electrostatic Potential Well in Spherical Geometry},
 url = {http://link.aip.org/link/?PFLDAS/11/2486/1},
 pages = {2486},
 volume = {11},
 number = {11},
 issn = {10706631},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1691842}
}


@inproceedings{Hirsch.1968c,
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L. and Meeks, Gene A.},
 title = {Review of Inertial Confinement Principles and a Beam-to-Spherical Discharge Experiment},
 pages = {290},
 volume = {2},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical},
 year = {1967}
}


@patent{HIRSCHROBERTL.19671215,
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L.},
 year = {1967/12/15},
 title = {APPARATUS FOR GENERATING FUSION REACTIONS},
 url = {https://lens.org/104-565-114-907-508},
 number = {US 3530036 A}
}


@patent{HIRSCHROBERTL.19680118,
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L.},
 year = {1968/01/18},
 title = {LITHIUM ION SOURCE IN APPARATUS FOR GENERATING FUSION REACTIONS},
 url = {https://lens.org/045-542-016-374-314},
 number = {US 3533910 A}
}


@patent{HIRSCHROBERTL.19680424,
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L. and Meeks, Gene A.},
 year = {1968/04/24},
 title = {APPARATUS FOR GENERATING FUSION REACTIONS},
 url = {https://lens.org/031-077-992-436-210},
 number = {US 3530497 A}
}


@patent{HIRSCHROBERTL.19680612,
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L.},
 year = {1968/06/12},
 title = {ELECTROSTATIC FIELD APPARATUS FOR REDUCING LEAKAGE OF PLASMA FROM MAGNETIC TYPE FUSION REACTORS},
 url = {https://lens.org/069-992-641-119-107},
 number = {US 3655508 A}
}


@patent{HIRSCHROBERTL.19680621,
 author = {Hirsch, Robert L.},
 year = {1968/06/21},
 title = {ELECTROSTATIC CONTAINMENT IN FUSION REACTORS},
 url = {https://lens.org/178-473-865-361-581},
 number = {US 3664920 A}
}


@article{HITOSHIHORI.2014,
 abstract = {Background/Aim: We are developing a neutron dynamic therapy (NDT) with boron tracedrugs for a new mechanical-clearance treatment of pathotoxic misfolded, aggregated, and self-propagating prion-associated disease proteins. We present a compact neutron generator-based NDT using a boron tracedrug UTX-51. Our NDT is based on the weak thermal neutron-bombarded destructive action of UTX-51 on bovine serum albumin (BSA) using the neutron beams produced from a compact inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) neutron generator. Results: BSA as an NDT molecular target was subjected to thermal neutron irradiation for eight hours using a compact neutron generator. The sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis pattern showed no protein band when 2 nmoles of BSA were irradiated with more than 100 nmoles of UTX-51, while BSA was not affected when irradiated without UTX-51. Conclusion: For the first time, we have succeeded in the molecular destruction of a prion-disease model protein, BSA, by NDT with a boron tracedrug, UTX-51, using a compact neutron generator.},
 author = {{HITOSHI HORI} and {RYU TADA} and {YOSHIHIRO UTO} and {EIJI NAKATA} and {TAKASHI MORII} and {Kai Masuda}},
 year = {2014},
 title = {A Neutron Dynamic Therapy with a Boron Tracedrug UTX-51 Using a Compact Neutron Generator},
 pages = {4557},
 volume = {34},
 number = {8},
 issn = {02507005},
 journal = {Anticancer Research}
}


@phdthesis{Hochberg.1992,
 author = {Hochberg, Timothy Allen},
 year = {1992},
 title = {Characterization and Modelling of the Gas Discharge in a SFID Neutron Generator},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Hockney.1967,
 author = {Hockney, R. W.},
 title = {Two-dimensional computer experiments on inertial confinement},
 pages = {290},
 volume = {13},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical},
 year = {1967}
}


@article{Hockney.1968,
 author = {Hockney, R. W.},
 year = {1968},
 title = {Formation and stability of virtual electrodes in a cylinder},
 pages = {4166--4170},
 volume = {39},
 number = {9},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1656942}
}


@book{Hora.2016,
 year = {2016},
 title = {Edward Teller Lectures: Lasers and Inertial Fusion Energy},
 url = {https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/p1095#t=aboutBook},
 edition = {2},
 publisher = {{Imperial College Press}},
 isbn = {1865-3529},
 editor = {Hora, Heinrich and Miley, George H.},
 doi = {10.1142/p1095}
}


@article{Hori.2014,
 abstract = {Background/Aim: We are developing a neutron dynamic therapy (NDT) with boron tracedrugs for a new mechanical-clearance treatment of pathotoxic misfolded, aggregated, and self-propagating prion-associated disease proteins. We present a compact neutron generator-based NDT using a boron tracedrug UTX-51. Our NDT is based on the weak thermal neutron-bombarded destructive action of UTX-51 on bovine serum albumin (BSA) using the neutron beams produced from a compact inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) neutron generator. Results: BSA as an NDT molecular target was subjected to thermal neutron irradiation for eight hours using a compact neutron generator. The sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis pattern showed no protein band when 2 nmoles of BSA were irradiated with more than 100 nmoles of UTX-51, while BSA was not affected when irradiated without UTX-51. Conclusion: For the first time, we have succeeded in the molecular destruction of a prion-disease model protein, BSA, by NDT with a boron tracedrug, UTX-51, using a compact neutron generator. {\copyright} 2014, International Institute of Anticancer Research. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Hori, H. and Tada, R. and Uto, Y. and Nakata, E. and Morii, T. and Masuda, Kai},
 year = {2014},
 title = {A neutron dynamic therapy with a boron tracedrug UTX-51 using a compact neutron generator},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84908701600&partnerID=40&md5=feaffdce1513f2fce5b11f1247635223},
 keywords = {Article;Boron compounds;boron derivative;Boron neutron capture therapy;Boron tracedrug;Bovine;bovine serum albumin;Compact neutron generator;Conference Paper;Curcuminoid;generator;linear accelerator;methodology;NDT;Neutron;neutron capture therapy;Neutron dynamic therapy;Neutron generator;neutron radiation;neutron therapy;Neutrons;nuclear reactor;polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis;radiation exposure;Serum Albumin;tracer;unclassified drug;utx 51;UTX-51},
 pages = {4557--4560},
 volume = {34},
 number = {8},
 issn = {02507005},
 journal = {Anticancer Research}
}


@inproceedings{Hotta.2006,
 author = {Hotta, Eiki and {Tokyo Tech. IEC Group}},
 title = {Status and Prospect of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Devices as Neutron/Proton Sources},
 booktitle = {3rd Int. Symp. on Sustainable Energy System},
 year = {2006}
}


@patent{HOTTAHIDEYOSHI.20040331,
 author = {Hotta, Eiki and Yamauchi, Kunihito},
 year = {2004/03/31},
 title = {NUCLEAR FUSION NEUTRON SOURCE},
 url = {https://lens.org/090-159-349-676-599},
 number = {JP 2005291853 A}
}


@phdthesis{Hu.1971,
 author = {Hu, Kung-ming},
 year = {1971},
 title = {Steady State Solution of an Ion Injection Spherical Electrostatic Confinement Device with Coexisting Beam and Trapped Particles},
 school = {{The Pennsylvania State University}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Hu.1974,
 author = {Hu, Kung-ming and Klevans, Edward H.},
 year = {1974},
 title = {On the theory of electrostatic confinement of plasmas with ion injection},
 url = {http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/pof1/17/1/10.1063/1.1694594},
 pages = {227},
 volume = {17},
 number = {1},
 issn = {10706631},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1694594}
}


@phdthesis{Huisman.,
 author = {Huisman, A. E.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Optimization of the neutron yield in TU/e FUSOR},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@proceedings{IEEE.2015,
 year = {2015},
 title = {2015 IEEE International Symposium on Technologies for Homeland Security (HST)},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 institution = {IEEE}
}


@phdthesis{Imel.1973,
 author = {Imel, G. R.},
 year = {1973},
 title = {A Theoretical Model of a Spherical Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{The Pennsylvania State University}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Ishibashi.2011,
 author = {Ishibashi, Takayuki and Maeda, Akihide and Osawa, Hodaka and Ohnishi, Masami},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Neutron Source with RF Ion Sources at Confront Position: Neutron mesurement with E-M noize elimination of pluse high voltage},
 publisher = {J-STAGE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2011s.0.699.0}
}


@inproceedings{Itagaki.2017,
 author = {Itagaki, Tomonobu and Okutomo, Kohei and Hasegawa, Jun and Hotta, Eiki and Takakura, Kei and Kohno, Toshiyuki},
 title = {Spectroscopic analysis of linear shaped inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device},
 volume = {NIFS-PROC-113},
 booktitle = {Symposium on {\grqq}Pulsed Power and High-Density Plasma and its Applications{\textquotedbl}},
 year = {2017}
}


@article{Itagaki.2020,
 abstract = {A novel inverse analysis method was developed and tested to determine the spatial distribution of the ionization rate of hydrogen gas in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device. The ionization rate distributions were inversely determined so that an experimentally observed H\textgreek{a} spectrum could be reproduced by the linear combination of H\textgreek{a} partial spectra that were numerically predicted by one-dimensional Monte Carlo simulations. This method is useful for improving the performance of IEC fusion device as a neutron source because the ionization rate distribution greatly affects the ion energy distribution and fusion rate. {\copyright} 2020 The Japan Society of Plasma Science and Nuclear Fusion Research.},
 author = {Itagaki, Tomonobu and Hasegawa, J. and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Investigation of ion generation rates in an inertial electrostatic confinement device by spectroscopy-based inverse Analysis},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85091884851&doi=10.1585%2fPFR.15.1206070&partnerID=40&md5=5c8f1b803bb1fd6af7e333eeb793819f},
 keywords = {Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;IEC fusion device;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inverse analysis;Inverse analysis methods;Inverse problems;Ion doppler spectroscopy;Ion energy distributions;Ionization of gases;Ionization rates;Linear combinations;Monte Carlo methods;Monte carlo simulation;Neutron sources},
 volume = {15},
 issn = {18806821},
 journal = {Plasma and Fusion Research},
 doi = {10.1585/PFR.15.1206070}
}


@article{Itagaki.2020b,
 abstract = {A linear inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron source equipped with a cooling system for high power operation was developed and its discharge characteristics and neutron production performance were tested under a wide range of discharge conditions. Four different types of discharge anodes were prepared and the dependencies of the device performance on the anode shape were precisely investigated. A maximum neutron production rate of 3.4$\times$106 n/s was achieved when the device was operated with single-cylinder-type anodes under a discharge voltage of 94 kV, a current of 20 mA , and a deuterium gas pressure of 0.5 Pa. By comparing the discharge characteristics and neutron generation rates under different anode shapes, we found that the larger inner diameter of the anode leads to longer effective gap length and lower operating pressure, which may result in relatively high fusion reaction rate observed with the single-cylinder-type anodes. {\copyright} 2020 The Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan.},
 author = {Itagaki, Tomonobu and Hotta, Eiki and Hasegawa, J. and Takakura, K. and Tabata, S. and Matsueda, Y.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Anode shape dependency of discharge characteristics and neutron yield of a linear type inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85094100032&doi=10.1541%2fieejfms.140.464&partnerID=40&md5=39b339c694461687226d9bc613e3471e},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cylinders (shapes);Deuterium gas pressure;Device performance;Discharge characteristics;Discharge conditions;Discharge voltages;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;glow discharge;High-power operation;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutron production rates;neutron source;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Plasma interactions;Reaction rates},
 pages = {464--472},
 volume = {140},
 number = {9},
 issn = {03854205},
 journal = {IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Materials},
 doi = {10.1541/ieejfms.140.464}
}


@article{Iwamoto.2001,
 abstract = {Effects of electrode shape on fusion reaction rate in the cylindrical IECF device are investigated by the experiments to verify simulation results. The effects of the cylindrical edge of anodes are clearly observed, but the effect of cathode length and radius is not clear in the preliminary experiments. The maximum neutron generation rate of $\sim$47 thousand neutrons per second is obtained with 37.5kV, 6mA discharge using an anode with 40-mm depth edge.},
 author = {Iwamoto, Yu and Shirouzu, Takayuki and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Inoue, Nobuyuki},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Preliminary Results of Cylindrical Electrostatic Confinement Experiment},
 url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.13182/FST01-A11963294},
 pages = {552--556},
 volume = {39},
 number = {2P2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A11963294}
}


@inproceedings{J.H.Park.2006,
 author = {{J. H. Park} and Ju, H.-J. and {K. C. Ko}},
 title = {A Portable Neutron Source using by Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion Device},
 pages = {693--695},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the XXIInd International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/DEIV.2006.357397}
}


@inproceedings{Jameson.1994,
 author = {Jameson, Lorin W. and Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {EIXL V2.3: A Steady-State Simulation of IEF IXL/EXL Systems},
 pages = {1739--1740},
 volume = {39},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1994}
}


@article{Jasica.2017,
 author = {Jasica, Matthew J. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Preliminary Results of He Implantation in Tungsten at Angled Incidence in DAISIE},
 keywords = {helium;in color only in;note;some figures may be;surface damage;the electronic version;Tungsten},
 pages = {719--725},
 volume = {72},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2017.1350482}
}


@article{Jasica.2019,
 abstract = {A new dual ion beam experimental facility, the Dual Advanced Ion Simultaneous Implantation Experiment (DAISIE), has been constructed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Inertial Electrostatic Confinement laboratory for implanting candidate plasma-facing components of multiple ion species. DAISIE is capable of implanting ions at energies from 10 kV to 50 kV, ion currents of 10 \textgreek{m}A-950 \textgreek{m}A, corresponding to steady-state ion fluxes of 1 $\times$ 1014 cm-2 s-1 to 1 $\times$ 1016 cm-2 s-1, incidence angles of 55°, and surface temperatures of at least 1100 °C. Improvements to the sample current and sample temperature measurement and control systems over those used in prior UW-IEC experiments have been made. Optical measurements of the spot size of the beam on samples in DAISIE are in agreement with existing measurements of the ion beam and spot size in previous UW-IEC experiments. Dual-beam operation has been confirmed with helium-deuterium ion implantations in tungsten surfaces. {\copyright} 2019 U.S. Government.},
 author = {Jasica, Matthew J. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Bonomo, Richard M.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {The dual advanced ion simultaneous implantation experiment (DAISIE) for testing plasma-facing materials},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85073770600&doi=10.1063%2f1.5120040&partnerID=40&md5=5591dd6b5697c92767f1ec5fc48b040b},
 keywords = {Experimental facilities;Inertial electrostatic confinement;ion beams;Ions;Optical data processing;Optical measurement;Plasma facing materials;Plasma-facing components;Simultaneous implantation;Surface temperatures;Temperature measurement;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 volume = {90},
 number = {10},
 issn = {00346748},
 journal = {Review of Scientific Instruments},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5120040}
}


@article{Jasica.2020,
 abstract = {A custom designed and manufactured set of ion guns has been in use at the University of Wisconsin Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Laboratory for both beam fusion experiments and materials implantation experiments. For the first time, direct measurements have been made on the spatial profiles and the mass compositions of He and D ion beams produced by these guns. The results validate assumptions about the circular Gaussian spatial profiles for both He and D ion beams. Mass composition measurements of the He beam identified a pressure-dependent minimum impurity content of 15{\%} N+. The D beam contained relative molecular ion fractions of 58{\%} D3 +, 32{\%} D2 +, and 10{\%} D+ with impurities of 15{\%} to 20{\%} D2O+. A new experimental platform, the Ion Beam and Source Analyzer was developed to perform these experiments on the ion guns used to irradiate candidate fusion materials. {\copyright} 2020, {\copyright} 2020 American Nuclear Society.},
 author = {Jasica, Matthew J. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Spatial Profile and Beam Composition Measurements of the University of Wisconsin Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Laboratory Ion Guns},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85079813629&doi=10.1080%2f15361055.2019.1693204&partnerID=40&md5=cd1d3beaf85ee04396a9bf938850c3af},
 keywords = {Beam composition;Beam profile;Beam profiles;Deuterium;Direct measurement;Electrostatics;Experimental platform;Gaussian beams;helium;impurities;Impurity content;Inertial electrostatic confinement;ion beams;ion gun;Ion sources;Ions;Pressure dependent;University of Wisconsin},
 pages = {110--119},
 volume = {76},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2019.1693204}
}


@inproceedings{Javedani.1992,
 author = {Javedani, J. and Yamamoto, Y. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Development of a Novel Neutron Source with Applications in Calibration and Monitoring},
 pages = {1581},
 volume = {37},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1992}
}


@inproceedings{Javedani.1994,
 author = {Javedani, Jalal B. and Gu, Yibin B. and Williams, Michael J. and Miley, George H. and Hartwell, J. K. and Anderl, R. A. and Jones, J.L and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Nebel, Richard A. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 title = {Studies of the IEC Accelerator-Plasma Target Fusion Neutron Source for Activation Analysis},
 pages = {1768--1769},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1994}
}


@phdthesis{Johnson.2017,
 author = {Johnson, K.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Neutronics Analysis on an Explosives Detection System Using an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Neutron Source and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Ju.2010,
 abstract = {Recently, in order to improve a neutron yield in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device operating at a glow discharge mode, various techniques have been performed, such as injection of plasma ion source, introduction of multi-grid configuration, coating electrode with titanium, magnetic assisted IEC device, and so on. However, these techniques lead to the complicated structure of a device which limits the flexibility of the shape design and are not easy to make an IEC device compact and portable. In this research, we have proposed a new configuration for the yield improvement without additionally external ion sources; an application of a double grid cathode. A neutron yield in an IEC device is proportional to the ion current and is closely related to the potential well structure inside the cathode. Therefore, when a double grid cathode is applied to an IEC device, the high electric field strength near the cathode is generated and thus, the high neutron production rate will be obtained. These facts are verified as compared with the ion current calculated at both single and double grid cathode shape. Additionally, ion's lives and trajectories are examined in various grid cathode configurations and cathode voltages by using a numerical simulation. {\copyright} 2010 IEEE.},
 author = {Ju, H.-J. and Ko, K.-C. and Ju, Heung-Jin and Ko, Kwang-Cheol},
 title = {Application of double grid cathode for improvement of neutron yield in IEC device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-80051709447&doi=10.1109%2fIPMHVC.2010.5958449&partnerID=40&md5=fc0587424a5261e165fbf1a41a0c5314},
 keywords = {Cathode voltages;Cathodes;Complicated structures;Computer simulation;double grid cathode;Electric fields;Equipment;Glow discharges;High electric fields;IMPROVE-A;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;ion current;Ion currents;Ion sources;Ions;Multi-grid;Neutron production rates;neutron yield;Neutron yields;Neutrons;numerical simulation;Plasma ion source;Potential wells;Shape designs;Titanium;Yield Improvement},
 urldate = {23 May 2010 through 27 May 2010},
 pages = {674--678},
 booktitle = {2010 IEEE International Power Modulator and High Voltage Conference, IPMHVC 2010},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.1109/IPMHVC.2010.5958449}
}


@inproceedings{Jung.2008,
 author = {Jung, Soonwook and Kim, Jihun and Hwang, Yong-Seok},
 title = {Experimental and Theoretical Study on a Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 booktitle = {KNS Spring Meeting},
 year = {2008}
}


@article{Jung.2011,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device has been investigated as a compact fusion source to generate byproducts of fusion reactions for many applications. However, the IEC fusion device still has insufficient fusion reaction rate and stability issues in high power operation. In this work, a cylindrical IEC device is designed and discharge voltage and current at various pressures and geometries are studied to understand their effect on discharge. From this result, three key features is observed and discussed: 1) discharge voltage in IEC device increases with lower transparent cathode at the identical operating pressure, 2) high voltage and current discharge can be obtained with higher operating pressure at the identical pd value. 3) high voltage discharge without decrease of operating pressure can be obtained by considering limit length of cathode diameter in IEC device. Based on these results, it is supposed that transparency and size of cathode in an IEC device can be optimized for high voltage and current discharge with relatively high operating pressure to increase fusion reactions of beam-cathode surface and beam-background gas besides ion-ion fusion reaction in continuous IEC discharge. Consequently, these results can be reflected on design of a high-yield fusion sources.},
 author = {Jung, B.-K. and Jung, S.-W. and Lee, J.-R. and Chung, K.-J. and Hwang, Yong-Seok},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Study on discharge characteristics of a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device for high-yield fusion sources},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-80052010899&doi=10.13182%2fFST11-A12415&partnerID=40&md5=06717f5810538346b354225f6b3927ad},
 keywords = {Byproducts;Cathodes;Discharge characteristics;Electric discharges;Electrodes;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;High operating pressure;High-power operation;High-voltage discharges;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Operating pressure;Surface reactions;Thermonuclear reactions;Transparent cathode},
 pages = {107--111},
 volume = {60},
 number = {1 T},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST11-A12415}
}


@inproceedings{Jurczyk.1997,
 author = {Jurczyk, Brian E. and Gu, Yibin B. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {IEC Resonant Ion Driven Oscillation (RIDO) Concept},
 pages = {bMoaP1.01},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1997}
}


@phdthesis{Jurczyk.1997b,
 author = {Jurczyk, B. E.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Theory and Development of a Sealed Deuterium-Tritium Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Neutron Generator},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@patent{Jurczyk.2005,
 author = {Jurczyk, Brian E. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Gas-Target Neutron Generation and Application}
}


@inproceedings{Jurczyk.2009,
 abstract = {One approach to fullerene production is the use of a hydrocarbon such as methane in a plasma discharge. The efficiency of this approach is hampered, however, because hydrogen atoms in the discharge can quench the recombination of carbon atoms prior to full C-60 formation. Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) offers a possible solution, however. A potential well structure develops in the center of a spherical IEC discharge (1) such that carbon and hydrogen ions tend to concentrate in different regions of the well, giving a higher conversion to C-60. Experiments with He-methane mixtures have confirmed the basic principle, but further research is under way to determine optimum conversion efficiencies achievable. In this case the IEC is operated in a pulsed mode so that carbon recombination occurs rapidly as the plasma cools between pulses. Removal of product C-60 is done through a double valve arrangement at the bottom of the chamber, so that vacuum need not be broken. An alternate approach, also under study, is to operate the IEC in the `jet' mode (2). Then, the plasma entering the jet is predominately from the outer region of the potential well structure, again providing separation. Preliminary results and calculations for both configurations will be presented.},
 author = {Jurczyk, Brian E. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {IEC plasma discharge for fullerene production},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031624668&partnerID=40&md5=302ee8ede68f85e3c7b389d651c8746e},
 keywords = {Electrostatics;Fullerenes;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Plasma confinement;Plasma discharge;Plasma jets},
 urldate = {1 June 1998 through 4 June 1998},
 pages = {145},
 booktitle = {1998 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1998}
}


@patent{JURCZYKBRIANE.20020128,
 author = {Jurczyk, Brian E. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A.},
 year = {2002/01/28},
 title = {Gas-target neutron generation and applications},
 url = {https://lens.org/061-682-989-591-256},
 number = {US 6922455 B2}
}


@inproceedings{K.Yamauchi.2001,
 author = {Yamauchi, K. and Ogasawara, K. and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Sunaga, Y. and Hotta, E.},
 title = {Fundamental study of radially convergent beam fusion},
 pages = {285},
 booktitle = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. PPPS-2001 Pulsed Power Plasma Science 2001. 28th IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science and 13th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference (Cat. No.01CH37},
 year = {2001},
 doi = {10.1109/PPPS.2001.960937}
}


@inproceedings{Kajiwara.2008,
 author = {Kajiwara, Taiju and Masuda, Kai and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Electron Energy Recovery for an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2008},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2008f.0.880.0}
}


@inproceedings{Kajiwara.2009,
 author = {Kajiwara, Taiju and Masuda, Kai and Zen, Heishun and Nakagawa, Tomoya and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 title = {Electron Energy Recovery Experiments on an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2009s.0.616.0}
}


@inproceedings{Kajiwara.2010,
 author = {Kajiwara, Taiju and Masuda, Kai and Kipritidis, John and Yamagaki, Yu and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 title = {Study of double-grid Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion for recovery of energy from escaping electrons},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2010f.0.894.0}
}


@inproceedings{Kajiwara.2011,
 author = {Kajiwara, Taiju and Masuda, Kai and Yamagaki, Yu and Lepoultier, Sabine and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 title = {Measurement of Spatial Distributions of Fusion Reactions via proton detection in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device Driven by a Ring-Shaped Ion Source},
 publisher = {J-STAGE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2011f.0.718.0}
}


@incollection{Kajiwara.2012,
 abstract = {In an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device, the so-called 'beam-beam' reactions are preferable as their fusion rate shows I2-dependence. In previous experiments with a newly developed-IEC device driven by a ring-shaped ion source at low pressure (several mPa D2), we observed I2-dependence of neutron production rate for the first time in the world. It is necessary to clarify what brought this I 2-dependence. Measurement of spatial distribution of proton production by DD fusion reactions should be an effective means of determining the contribution of beam-beam reactions. With this new low pressure IEC, however, the detector should be nearer the IEC center in order to detect ample proton count rate, limiting X-ray flux on the detector by the collimator. Additionally, spatial resolution is required to be higher than the previous system to distinguish the central gridded cathode space from the cathode surface. We have designed a new measurement system. The spatial resolution was expected to be high enough. New setup has been ready, and experiments in the new IEC will be done very soon. {\copyright} Springer 2012.},
 author = {Kajiwara, T. and Masuda, Kai and Kipritidis, John and Yamagaki, Yu and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 title = {Measurement of spatial distributions of fusion reactions in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device driven by a ring-shaped Magnetron Ion source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84884275723&doi=10.1007%2f978-4-431-54067-0_29&partnerID=40&md5=af3b2df01cb60ee25d4ce48eb2265fa5},
 keywords = {Cathode surface;Cathodes;Electrostatics;Fusion;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Global warming;Image resolution;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion sources;Magnetron ion source;Magnetrons;Measurement system;Neutron production rates;Proton detection;Proton detections;Spatial distribution;Spatial resolution;Spatial variables measurement;Thermonuclear reactions;X ray detectors},
 pages = {255--260},
 publisher = {{Springer Tokyo}},
 isbn = {1865-3529},
 editor = {Yao, Takeshi},
 booktitle = {Zero-Carbon Energy Kyoto 2011},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.1007/978-4-431-54067-0{\textunderscore }29}
}


@article{Kalita.2022,
 abstract = {A detailed design and testing of a pulsed power system (PPS) which has been developed in order to drive a table-top inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device are presented over here. A 0.04~µF, 100~kV capacitor has been used to store the energy for generating the pulse. Along with the capacitor, other critical components such as high-voltage spark gap switch, high-voltage power supply, high power resistors, and diodes, triggering unit have been combined to develop the PPS. The discharge current and voltage pulse have been recorded by using high voltage and current probes, respectively. A current peak of $\sim$ 17.5 A at an input potential of $-$ 70~kV and a power dissipation peak of $\sim$ 1200~kW have been observed when the spherical IEC fusion device is used as the load in the PPS. Graphical abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.] {\copyright} 2022, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to EDP Sciences, SIF and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.},
 author = {Kalita, S. and Bhattacharjee, D. and Mohanty, S. R.},
 year = {2022},
 title = {Development of a compact pulse power driver for operation of table-top fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85124475051&doi=10.1140%2fepjd%2fs10053-022-00342-5&partnerID=40&md5=e1eb207e111c4cdf5f85cacae4d51c78},
 keywords = {Critical component;Detailed design;Electric power systems;Electric spark gaps;Electrostatics;Energy;Fusion devices;High-voltage spark gap;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Pulse power;Pulsed power systems;Table-top},
 volume = {76},
 number = {2},
 issn = {14346060},
 journal = {European Physical Journal D},
 doi = {10.1140/epjd/s10053-022-00342-5}
}


@inproceedings{Kanagae.2009,
 abstract = {A discharge-type tube shaped neutron source has been developed utilizing fusion reactions on the surface of the cylindrical electrodes in the device. Neutron beam can be generated with adequate reflector design. From the neutronic analyses using the MCNP; three-dimensional particle transport code, using H(2)O or D(2)O as a reflector is essential to obtain narrow-shaped and sufficiently thermalized neutron beam. Experimental results supported the design and suggest the feasibility of table top fusion neutron beam based on this concept.},
 author = {Kanagae, T. and Noborio, Kazuyuki and Yamamoto, Y. and Konishi, S.},
 title = {Generation of Neutron Beam by the Cylindrical Discharge Fusion Device},
 keywords = {cylindrical discharge fusion;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;MCNP;neutron beam;Neutron generator},
 pages = {599--602},
 booktitle = {2009 23rd IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering (SOFE 2009)},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2009.5226383}
}


@inproceedings{Kanaiwa.2015,
 author = {Kanaiwa, Junichiro and Maeda, Syougo and Aota, Hidesata and Sugita, Yusuke and Shinooka, Miki and Shindo, Haruo and Chiba, Masami and Fujii, Masatoshi and Utsumi, Michiaki},
 title = {Spectroscopic measurement of electrostatic potential of the center cathode region in an IEC device 2},
 booktitle = {JSAP Annual Meetings Extended Abstracts},
 year = {2015},
 doi = {10.11470/jsapmeeting.2015.2.0{\textunderscore }451}
}


@inproceedings{Kanaiwa.2015b,
 author = {Kanaiwa, Junichiro and Omura, Kouta and Tomokiyo, Shota and Maeda, Syougo and Aota, Hidesata and Utsumi, Michiaki and Chiba, Masami and Fujii, Masatoshi and Shindo, Haruo},
 title = {Spectroscopic measurement of electrostatic potential of the center cathode region in IEC device},
 booktitle = {JSAP Annual Meetings Extended Abstracts},
 year = {2015},
 doi = {10.11470/jsapmeeting.2015.1.0{\textunderscore }520}
}


@inproceedings{Karamurzov.2016,
 abstract = {The physics of plasma formation is discussed in the systems with inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) during the convergent to the axis of cylindrical geometry of the ion flow accelerated periodically in the field of virtual cathode, which is formed by the injected electrons. The ranges of plasma parameters and the resulting neutron yield are determined for different modes of ion flux formation. The requirements are formulated to the technical parameters of the system with IEC to create both a powerful neutron source with a rate of generation exceeding 1010-1012 particles/s and to achieve a positive energy output (analogue of Lawson criterion). {\copyright} Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Karamurzov, B.S. and Khishchenko, K.V. and Kadatskiy, M.A. and Efremov, V.P. and Fortov, V.E. and Sultanov, V.G. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Kurilenkov, Yu K.},
 title = {Neutron yield and Lawson criterion for plasma with inertial electrostatic confinement},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85007028395&doi=10.1088%2f1742-6596%2f774%2f1%2f012132&partnerID=40&md5=6a2bd8faca09b390d4069b798ce952ae},
 keywords = {Cylinders (shapes);cylindrical geometry;Electrostatics;Equations of state;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Injected electrons;Neutron sources;Neutron yields;Neutrons;Plasma formations;Plasma parameter;Positive energies;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {774},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2016},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/774/1/012132}
}


@inproceedings{Karamurzov.2019,
 abstract = {Design features and parameters of a modernized installation of inertial electrostatic confinement based on a low-energy nanosecond vacuum discharge ($\sim$ 1 J) are described when operating in diode geometry in the virtual cathode formation mode and the corresponding potential well. The device is used to study the processes of collisional DD synthesis in the interelectrode space, the processes of x-ray generation in complex plasma at various stages of the discharge: from the very initial stage, when the beam of autoelectrons only begins to irradiate the nonideal anode surface, to oscillating plasma configurations in later stages of the discharge. Here, the first steps were done to introduce x-ray spectral diagnostics, as well as to obtain the integral x-ray spectra for visualizations of interelectrode complex plasmas. {\copyright} 2019 Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Karamurzov, B.S. and Khishchenko, K.V. and Efremov, V.P. and Sultanov, V.G. and Kadatskiy, M.A. and Fortov, V.E. and Oginov, A. V. and Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Samoylov, I. S. and Shpakov, K. V. and Rodionov, A. A. and Karpukhin, V. T.},
 title = {Time resolved x-ray emission from nanosecond vacuum discharge with virtual cathode},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85062414508&doi=10.1088%2f1742-6596%2f1147%2f1%2f012081&partnerID=40&md5=01241ebb4fe02d9fd5615cd0056d5748},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Collisional plasmas;Design features;Electric discharges;Equations of state;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Plasma configuration;Plasma oscillations;Plasma theory;Potential wells;Spectral diagnostics;vacuum discharge;Virtual cathodes;X rays;X-ray generation},
 volume = {1147},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2019},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/1147/1/012081}
}


@article{Kargarian.2021,
 abstract = {In this paper, the plasma parameters in the Iranian-Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IR-IECF) device are measured using a Langmuir probe system. For this purpose, different parts of the Langmuir probe and necessary equipment are designed and constructed. The IR-IECF device, a compact IEC-based fusion device for nuclear fusion researches operating in pulsed or continuous mode, consists of two concentric or coaxial electrodes that the central one is negatively high voltage-biased and the outward electrode is grounded. In this configuration, the strong electric field between electrodes leads to ionization the filling gas resulting in hot and dense plasma formation in the center of the device. By applying voltage to the probe electrode being in direct contact with the plasma formed in the IR-IECF device, the current drawn from the probe is measured. Henceforth, by interpreting the obtained current-voltage (I-V) characteristic curve, the plasma parameters are determined for different conditions of discharge voltage and current. Moreover, by moving the probe between the electrodes, the plasma parameters at different distances from the IR-IECF device center are measured. {\copyright} 2021 IOP Publishing Ltd and Sissa Medialab.},
 author = {Kargarian, A. and Sedaghat, Movahhed M.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Plasma diagnostic in a compact IEC-based nuclear fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85118618063&doi=10.1088%2f1748-0221%2f16%2f10%2fP10025&partnerID=40&md5=a4f0e65362602008423793331d8f2996},
 keywords = {Analyse and statistical method;Analysis and statistical methods;Diagnostic probes;Electric discharges;Electric grounding;Electrodes;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ionization of gases;Langmuir probes;Nuclear fusion devices;Plasma devices;Plasma diagnostic probe;Plasma diagnostics;Plasma diagnostics probes;Plasma generation;Plasma generation (laser-produced;Plasma parameter;Plasma's diagnostics;RF;x ray-produced)},
 volume = {16},
 number = {10},
 issn = {17480221},
 journal = {Journal of Instrumentation},
 doi = {10.1088/1748-0221/16/10/P10025}
}


@patent{KAWAKUBOYUKIO.20001204,
 author = {{KAWAKUBO YUKIO} and {TAKEUCHI KAZUHIRO} and {TANAKA MASANOBU}},
 year = {2000/12/04},
 title = {INERTIA ELECTROSTATIC CONTAINMENT DEVICE},
 url = {https://lens.org/180-293-664-891-563},
 number = {JP 2002168982 A}
}


@article{Kazemyzade.2012,
 abstract = {Using OOPIC-Pro assisted-two dimensional simulation we have considered the dependencies of the electron and ion densities, as well as the central electric potential on the magnetic-field intensity in the Polywell fusion reactor. It is shown that the potential well depth increases with decreasing the magnetic intensity, while much narrower well width (thus more effective deuteron trapping) is achieved with increasing the magnetic field intensity. The results obtained can be employed to adjust the magnetic field intensities at which more effective electron confinement, thus more effective ion-flux convergence, is expected. Furthermore, this study can be used to reach the optimized conditions of the reactor operation as well as to relate to the next generation fusion fuels. {\copyright} Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011.},
 author = {Kazemyzade, F. and Mahdipoor, H. and Bagheri, A. and Khademzade, S. and {Haji Ebrahimi}, E. and Gheisari, Z. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Damideh, V.},
 year = {2012},
 title = {Dependence of potential well depth on the magnetic field intensity in a polywell reactor},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84868531119&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-011-9474-4&partnerID=40&md5=733d939e171b3b9f1a8e09408940f33e},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Electric potential;Electron and ion densities;Electron confinement;Fusion fuel;Fusion reactors;Magnetic field intensity;Magnetic fields;Magnetic intensities;Magnetic-field intensity;Negative potential;Negative potential well (NPW);Optimized conditions;Particle in cell codes;Particle-in-cell code;Plasma confinement;Polywell fusion reactor;Potential wells;Reactor operation;Well width},
 pages = {341--345},
 volume = {31},
 number = {4},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-011-9474-4}
}


@article{Kenjo.2022,
 abstract = {A discharge-type fusion neutron source generates neutrons by fusion reactions of hydrogen isotope atoms. In order to operate the fusion device based on the deuterium--tritium (D--T) fusion reaction, the tritium inventory is required to be decreased. In the present work, a self-sufficient system was installed into the fusion device for reducing the amount of hydrogen isotope fuel gas. The fuel gas was supplied and recovered with an intermetallic compound ZrCo in a sealed chamber in this system. A deuterium--deuterium operation was maintained for more than 60 min with stable discharge voltages, and the temperature of the ZrCo bed was changed to improve the neutron production rate. Factors that influenced the pressure inside the chamber were determined and optimized. Gas analysis using a quadrupole mass spectrometer indicates a dilution of the deuterium fuel was caused by hydrogen isotope exchange between the supplied deuterium gas and the absorbed protium on the chamber and electrodes surface. This system's hydrogen isotope control method and the amount of fuel were proposed for a D--T operation.},
 author = {Kenjo, Shunsuke and Ogino, Yasuyuki and Mukai, Keisuke and Bakr, Mahmoud A. and Yagi, Juro and Konishi, Satoshi},
 year = {2022},
 title = {Employing of ZrCo as a fuel source in a discharge-type fusion neutron source operated in self-sufficient mode},
 keywords = {Hydrogen isotope effect;Hydrogen storage;Intermetallic compound;neutron source;nuclear fusion},
 pages = {3054--3062},
 volume = {47},
 number = {5},
 issn = {03603199},
 journal = {International Journal of Hydrogen Energy},
 doi = {10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.10.250}
}


@inproceedings{Keutelian.2012,
 author = {Keutelian, Paul and Krishnamurthy, Akshata and Chen, George},
 title = {Progress in Numerical Simulation of HIIPER Space Propulsion Device},
 url = {http://www.ch.comsol.com/cd/direct/conf/conference2012papers/papers/13090/13539_keutelian_paper.pdf},
 keywords = {dc discharges;IEC;Plasmas},
 booktitle = {2012 COMSOL Conference in Boston},
 year = {2012}
}


@phdthesis{Keutelian.2013,
 author = {Keutelian, Paul A.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Comparitive Simulations of Conceptual Ion Extractors for Use in Asymmetric Inertial Electrostatic Confinement},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Khachan.2001,
 abstract = {Doppler shift spectroscopy was carried out on the discharge in a spherically symmetric inertial-electrostatic confinement system. This enabled the ion energy distributions, types, and densities of ionic species to be determined. A weakly ionized hydrogen radio-frequency discharge was used as the ion source for two spherical and concentric electrostatic grids. The inner and outer grids were the cathode and anode, respectively. It was found that the ion energy distribution consisted of a non-Maxwellian directional component, as well as a spatially isotropic Maxwellian distribution. The directional component consisted of three broadened energy peaks belonging to H+3 (20{\%}), H+2 (60{\%}), and H+ (20{\%}). These ions had energies approximately 20{\%} of the cathode potential. The temperature (in electronvolts) of the Maxwellian distribution was approximately 15{\%} of the cathode potential. {\copyright} 2001 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Khachan, Joe and Collis, S.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Measurements of ion energy distributions by Doppler shift spectroscopy in an inertial-electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035308689&doi=10.1063%2f1.1349875&partnerID=40&md5=f246721d5a00b24fbcad16bcde4f8dd2},
 pages = {1299--1304},
 volume = {8},
 number = {4},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1349875}
}


@article{Khachan.2003,
 abstract = {The spatial distribution of ion energies in an inertial electrostatic confinement device was measured. This device can be used as a small nuclear fusion source for the generation of neutrons. The results indicate that a virtual anode was established at the center of the electrostatic potential well using Doppler shift spectroscopy and a single ended Langmuir probe.},
 author = {Khachan, Joe and Moore, D. and Bosi, S.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Spatial distribution of ion energies in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0037349672&doi=10.1063%2f1.1544665&partnerID=40&md5=0484c7e09c2f442fc6da4d9826449c59},
 keywords = {Doppler effect;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Ion energies;Ions;Plasma theory},
 pages = {596--599},
 volume = {10},
 number = {3},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1544665}
}


@article{Khachan.2007,
 abstract = {Micron size dust particles were used to diagnose the direction of ion flow in an inertial electrostatic confinement discharge. Particles were dropped onto a one-dimensional device and were shown to deflect away from the center. The deflection of the dust particles was then accounted for by ion drag. It is concluded that ions are created at the cathode center and flow outwards. This supports recent work that has reached the same conclusion using Doppler spectroscopy. Moreover, estimates of the ion density from the deflection of dust particles was in agreement with Langmuir probe measurements. {\copyright} 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Khachan, Joe and Samarian, A. A.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Dust diagnostics on an inertial electrostatic confinement discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-33846934005&doi=10.1016%2fj.physleta.2006.11.015&partnerID=40&md5=c176824a850350c67a9e9b87b57a4440},
 keywords = {Doppler spectroscopy;Dust;Dust particle;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;ion density;Ion drag;Ion flow;Ions;Langmuir probe measurements;Langmuir probes;Micron size},
 pages = {297--301},
 volume = {363},
 number = {4},
 issn = {03759601},
 journal = {Physics Letters, Section A: General, Atomic and Solid State Physics},
 doi = {10.1016/j.physleta.2006.11.015}
}


@inproceedings{KhishchenkoK.V..2019,
 abstract = {We continue to analyze the effects of deuteron oscillations in potential well of a virtual cathode under inertial electrostatic confinement based on nanosecond vacuum discharge. The goal of this paper is to present and discuss in detail available experimental results on pulsating DD neutron yield at this scheme. Also, the results of simulations for virtual cathodes and potential wells for particular experimental regimes of neutron yields are shown and discussed, as well as comparison with available similar scheme of periodical oscillating plasmas spheres for fusion. {\copyright} 2019 Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Khishchenko, K.V. and Efremov, V.P. and Kadatskiy, M.A. and Fortov, V.E. and Karamurzov, B.S. and Sultanov, V.G. and Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Oginov, A. V. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 title = {On pulsating DD neutron yield under inertial electrostatic confinement of complex plasma at miniature vacuum discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85062421359&doi=10.1088%2f1742-6596%2f1147%2f1%2f012103&partnerID=40&md5=349fef76ab2fdd6d11867551df8319cd},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Complex plasma;D-D neutrons;Electric discharges;Equations of state;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron yields;Neutrons;Plasma oscillations;Potential wells;vacuum discharge;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {1147},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2019},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/1147/1/012103}
}


@inproceedings{King.1991,
 author = {King, Katherine E. and Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {EKXL: A Dynamic Poisson-Solver for Spherically Convergent Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Systems},
 pages = {2319},
 volume = {36},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1991}
}


@misc{King.1991b,
 author = {King, Katherine E. and Bussard, Robert W.},
 date = {1991},
 title = {EKXL: A Dynamic Poisson Solver for Polywell/HEPS Spherical Converging Flow Systems},
 number = {EMC2-0791-03/AD-A257 941},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@inproceedings{King.1992,
 author = {King, Katherine E. and Bussard, Robert W.},
 title = {Particle Trapping and Electron Two-Stream Instability in IEC Systems},
 pages = {1581--1582},
 volume = {37},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1992}
}


@article{Kipritidis.2007,
 abstract = {We construct a collisional--radiative model for atomic H produced in H2 gas at units and tens of mTorr pressures by a monoenergetic electron beam at units of keV energies. Unlike similar work in regimes of higher pressure and lower electron energies, we calculate the electron energy dependence of the two strongest Balmer lines (H\textgreek{a} and H\textgreek{b}). A key result is that the intensity ratios do not uniquely specify the electron energy, and so we propose a new method for measurement of the spatial energy profile using the absolute and relative intensities in tandem. The model shows qualitative agreement with semi-empirical distributions of absolute and relative intensities versus electron energy for beams emerging from a biconical hollow cathode.},
 author = {Kipritidis, John and Fitzgerald, Michael and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Spectroscopic determination of electron energies in a discharge of atomic H produced by a monoenergetic electron beam},
 pages = {5170},
 volume = {40},
 number = {17},
 issn = {0022-3727},
 journal = {Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1088/0022-3727/40/17/023}
}


@article{Kipritidis.2008,
 abstract = {We develop an optical measurement for densities of fast (units to tens of keV) hydrogen ions in an abnormal hollow cathode discharge in units to tens of mTorr pressure range. This method combines results from previous collisional-radiative models, comparing the intensity of Balmer H\textgreek{a} due to dissociative excitation of H2 by fast electrons to Doppler-shifted emission arising from charge exchange of energetic ions. The method requires only two inputs: the current density due to fast electrons and a single H\textgreek{a} spectrum of the characteristic emission channel at the anode. We model in particular the cylindrical interelectrode discharge of an inertial electrostatic confinement device. Experimentally, we find that the density of fast ions emerging from the cathode (bias -5 kV at 20 mTorr) is in the order 1014 m-3, increasing approximately linearly with current in the 10-30 mA range. Calculated densities agree with values obtained in similar apparatus using Langmuir probes and analysis of dust particle motion. {\copyright} 2008 The American Physical Society.},
 author = {Kipritidis, John and Khachan, Joe and Fitzgerald, Michael and Shrier, Oded},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Absolute densities of energetic hydrogen ion species in an abnormal hollow cathode discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-45249121738&doi=10.1103%2fPhysRevE.77.066405&partnerID=40&md5=27b82f15e60c239050c5105dd19474e5},
 keywords = {American Physical Society (APS);Atoms;Characteristic emission;Charge exchange (CX);Charge transfer;Charged particles;Chemical modification;Collisional radiative (CR) models;Current density;Discharge (fluid mechanics);Dissociative excitations;Doppler;Dust particle motion;Electrolysis;Electrons;Emission spectroscopy;Energetic ions;Fast electrons;Fast ions;Fluid mechanics;Hollow cathode discharge (HCD);Hydrogen;Hydrogen ions;Inductively coupled plasma;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Interelectrode;Ions;Langmuir;Measurements;Nonmetals;Optical measurements;Photodissociation;Plasmas;Pressure ranges;Units of measurement},
 volume = {77},
 number = {6},
 issn = {15393755},
 journal = {Physical Review E - Statistical, Nonlinear, and Soft Matter Physics},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.77.066405}
}


@article{Kipritidis.2009,
 abstract = {In our previous paper, we developed an optical measurement for absolute densities of fast (tens of keV) H ions in an abnormal hollow cathode discharge of hydrogen in the units to tens of mTorr pressure range. We apply this method to a cylindrically symmetric inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) discharge of hydrogen using the Doppler spectrum of H\textgreek{a}. We predict neutron production rates for an equivalent discharge of deuterium and compare these with experimental values under the separate conditions of constant deuterium gas pressure ($\sim$6 mTorr) and voltage (30 kV). Our predictions capture the variation of production rates with dc current (10-50 mA) and agree with experiment to within an order of magnitude. The applicability of this diagnostic to the cylindrical IEC discharge is thus demonstrated, with our results supporting the theory that the discharge is dominated by energetic neutrals emerging from the cathode apertures. {\copyright} 2009 The American Physical Society.},
 author = {Kipritidis, John and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Application of Doppler spectroscopy in H2 to the prediction of experimental D (d,n)3 He reaction rates in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-61349170771&doi=10.1103%2fPhysRevE.79.026403&partnerID=40&md5=0d723c8e1bf87cdce5d5e0c3d8211d95},
 keywords = {Absolute densities;D(d;DC currents;Deuterium;Deuterium gas pressures;Doppler spectroscopies;Doppler spectrums;Electrostatics;Experimental values;helium;Hollow cathode discharges;Hydrogen;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinements;n);Neutron production rates;Optical data processing;Optical measurements;Order of magnitudes;Pressure ranges;Production rates;Reaction rates;Units of measurement},
 volume = {79},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15393755},
 journal = {Physical Review E - Statistical, Nonlinear, and Soft Matter Physics},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.79.026403}
}


@phdthesis{Kipritidis.2009b,
 author = {Kipritidis, John},
 year = {2009},
 title = {The Application of Doppler H alpha Spectroscopy to the Prediction of Experimental Fusion Rates in a deuterium-filled Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Kipritidis.2010,
 author = {Kipritidis, John and Masuda, Kai and Kajiwara, Taiju and Yamagaki, Yu},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion driven by Ring-Shaped Magnetron Ion Source: Experimental neutron production rates and proton collimation tomography},
 pages = {893},
 volume = {2010f},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2010f.0.893.0}
}


@article{Kipritidis.2011,
 abstract = {We use the two-dimensional analysis code KUAD2 to simulate D 2+ trajectories in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device driven by a ring-shaped magnetron ion source (RS-MIS). This aims to maximize the path length \textgreek{l}CXfor ion-gas charge exchange by operating at just units of mPa D2 gas pressures;however, under these conditions simulations reveal a surprisingly small pathfor ion loss to the (Mo) cathode grid \textgreek{l}grid $\sim$ 30 cm \textgreek{l}CX. By developing an ad hoc model relating the time variation of cathode temperature absorbed D2 surface density, we use the simulated flux \textgreek{l}grid of ions striking the cathode grid to obtain the neutron production rate (NPR) arising from 'beamgrid. reactions. Results indicate that at units of mPa pressures, beam-grid NPRmay dominate over the 'beam-gas. and 'beam-beam reactions,' providing aqualitative explanation for earlier experimental observations of time-varying NPR-dependence on cathode grid current and gas pressure. {\copyright} 2011 IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Kipritidis, John and Masuda, Kai and Kajiwara, T. and Yamagaki, Yu and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Modeling the time variation of beam-grid fusion reaction rates in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device driven by a ring-shaped magnetron ion source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-79952922240&doi=10.1088%2f0741-3335%2f53%2f4%2f045006&partnerID=40&md5=7ea35da42e38448a34e4f0993c24deab},
 keywords = {Cathode temperature;Cathodes;Charge transfer;Computer simulation;Electrostatics;Experimental observation;Fusion reactors;Gas charge;Gas pressures;Grid current;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ion exchange;Ion loss;Ion sources;Ions;Magnetron ion source;Magnetrons;Neutron production rates;Path length;Plasmas;Reaction rates;Surface density;Time variations;Time varying;Two-dimensional analysis},
 volume = {53},
 number = {4},
 issn = {07413335},
 journal = {Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0741-3335/53/4/045006}
}


@article{Kislev.1991,
 author = {KISLEV, H. and Gundersen, M. A. and Miley, G. H.},
 year = {1991},
 title = {A Novel Ion Beam Source for Electrostatic Confined Fusion Reactors},
 pages = {843--849},
 volume = {20},
 number = {4P2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST91-A11946947}
}


@article{Kislev.1994,
 author = {KISLEV, H. and WARMUND, R. and Miley, George H.},
 year = {1994},
 title = {Injected Grid for Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Plasma Reactors},
 pages = {469--474},
 volume = {318},
 issn = {0094-243X},
 journal = {Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry},
 doi = {10.1063/1.46955}
}


@article{Kiyoshi.2007,
 abstract = {Current results are described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion) devices. With a 50 mm-thick water-jacketed IEC device (IEC20C) of a 200 mm inner diameter, it can produce 107 neutrons/s stably in CW mode for 80 kV and 80 mA. Ample 10.8 MeV gamma-rays produced through (n, gamma) reaction with nitrogen atoms in the melamine (C3H6N6) powder (explosive simulant) are clearly measured by a BGO-NaI-combined scintillation sensor with distinct difference in cases with and without melamine. This proves feasibility of the identification of the buried landmines. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Kiyoshi, Yoshikawa and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, Teruhisa and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Hotta, Eiki and Ohnishi, Masami and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Osawa, Hodaka and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Research and development of a compact discharge-driven D-D fusion neutron source for explosive detection},
 keywords = {BNCT;compact neutron/proton  source;Explosive Detection;IECF (inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion);Positron emitter isotope production},
 pages = {299--302},
 volume = {261},
 number = {1-2},
 issn = {0168583X},
 journal = {Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms},
 doi = {10.1016/j.nimb.2007.04.026}
}


@patent{KLEINALEXANDER.20101008,
 author = {{KLEIN ALEXANDER} and {RACKEY SCOTT}},
 year = {2010/10/08},
 title = {SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR MAGNETICALLY ASSISTED INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT FUSION},
 url = {https://lens.org/120-374-025-592-055},
 number = {US 2011/0085632 A1}
}


@article{Klevans.1971,
 author = {Klevans, Edward H. and Hu, Kung-ming},
 year = {1971},
 title = {Equilibrium Solutions for Electrostatic Confinement of Plasmas},
 pages = {1221},
 volume = {16},
 issn = {0003-0503},
 journal = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society}
}


@article{Klevans.1975,
 author = {Klevans, Edward H.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {Theoretical Models of Electrostatic Confinement Experiments},
 url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00091.x},
 pages = {190--212},
 volume = {251},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
 doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00091.x}
}


@inproceedings{Knapp.2015,
 abstract = {In the classic gridded inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion reactor, ion bombardment of the grid leads to heating, thermionic electron emission, significant power loss, and ultimately melting of the grid. Gridless IEC devices have sought to overcome these limitations. Klein reported a gridless device in which ions are circulated as a linear beam in an electrostatic analogue of an optical resonator. To overcome limits of stored ions due to space charge effects at the turning regions, the device employed multiple overlapping traps. The work reported here seeks to further increase the turning region space in a gridless trap by employing a planar geometry. Ion trapping in the planar device was examined by simulating trajectories of 2H+ ions with SIMION 8.1 software. Simulations were carried out using multiple potentials as in Klein's device and for a single potential trap as a planar analogue of the anharmonic ion trap. Scattering by background gas was simulated using a hard sphere collision model, and the results suggested the device will require operation at low pressure with a separate ion source.},
 author = {Knapp, Daniel R.},
 title = {Planar geometry inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84938125203&doi=10.1088%2f1742-6596%2f591%2f1%2f012018&partnerID=40&md5=f51c2cf21402760652a05bbac387496f},
 pages = {012018},
 volume = {591},
 publisher = {{IOP Publishing Ltd}},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2015},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/591/1/012018}
}


@patent{KNAPPDANIELR.20140904,
 author = {Knapp, Daniel R.},
 year = {2014/09/04},
 title = {Planar Geomertry Inertial Electrostatic confinement Fusion Device},
 url = {https://lens.org/114-185-200-916-839},
 number = {US 2016/0071621 A1}
}


@article{Kozlovsky.2017,
 abstract = {The results of examination of the insulating magnetic field in an accelerating ion diode are presented. This field is produced in order to suppress the electron current and thus enhance the neutron yield of the D(d, n)3He nuclear reaction. The following two designs are discussed: a gas-filled diode with inertial electrostatic confinement of ions and a vacuum diode with a laser-plasma ion source and pulsed magnetic insulation. Although the insulating field of permanent magnets is highly nonuniform, it made it possible to extend the range of accelerating voltages to U = 200 kV and raise the neutron yield to Q = 107 in the first design. The nonuniform field structure is less prominent in the device with pulsed magnetic insulation, which demonstrated efficient deuteron acceleration with currents up to 1 kA at U = 400 kV. The predicted neutron yield is as high as 109 neutrons/pulse. {\copyright} 2017, Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.},
 author = {Kozlovsky, K. I. and Martynenko, A. S. and Vovchenko, E. D. and Lisovsky, M. I. and Isaev, A. A.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Study of the Insulating Magnetic Field in an Accelerating Ion Diode},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85044146629&doi=10.1134%2fS1063778817110102&partnerID=40&md5=cd3877d32a6e9d6f981204ee4100ea44},
 keywords = {computer modeling;field of a permanent magnet;ion diode with magnetic insulation;neutron accelerating tube;pulsed field of a helical coil},
 pages = {1677--1682},
 volume = {80},
 number = {11},
 issn = {10637788},
 journal = {Physics of Atomic Nuclei},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063778817110102}
}


@article{Krall.1991,
 author = {Krall, N. A. and Wong, K. and Stefan, V.},
 year = {1991},
 title = {Theory of Physics Phenomena in the Polywell Plasma Confinement Geometry},
 pages = {2319},
 volume = {36},
 issn = {0003-0503},
 journal = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society}
}


@article{Krall.1992b,
 author = {Krall, Nicholas Anthony},
 year = {1992},
 title = {The Polywell{\texttrademark}: A Spherically Convergent Ion Focus Concept},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0026905658&doi=10.13182%2fFST92-A30052&partnerID=40&md5=e4ba19135013bbd440e25e6a5e198db4},
 pages = {42--49},
 volume = {22},
 number = {1},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST92-A30052}
}


@article{Krall.1995,
 author = {Krall, Nicholas Anthony and Coleman, Michael and Maffei, K. and Lovberg, J. and Jacobsen, R. and Bussard, Robert W.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {Forming and maintaining a potential well in a quasispherical magnetic trap},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.871103},
 pages = {146--158},
 volume = {2},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.871103}
}


@inproceedings{Krishnamurthy.2012,
 abstract = {HIIPER (Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket) is a light-weight electric propulsion system that employs a high density helicon plasma source for ion production and erosion resistant inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) stage for plasma acceleration. The helicon source has been used for space propulsion previously; however issues of longevity, scalability and cost have always been a barrier in achieving more comprehensive interplanetary explorations. In this present effort, these limitations have been overcome by using a helicon stage to produce and inject high density plasma into the IEC stage which accelerates ions to high energies (multi-kVs), forming a pencil-thin plasma jet exhaust that produces exceptional thrusting capability. Plasma diagnostics have been employed to characterize the coupling of this two stage system and force measurements are being performed to determine the thrust produced by the exhaust plasma jet using a plasma force sensor. The force sensor is based on a previous design and has been modified to suit the tight jet of the plasma exhaust. The calibration method used is unconventional and employs an axial displacement method to replicate the axial forces applied by the impinging plasma jet. {\copyright} 2012 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.},
 author = {Krishnamurthy, A. and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Keutelian, P. and Chen, George and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER): Experimental proof of principle},
 keywords = {Axial displacements;Electric propulsion systems;Electrostatics;Helicon plasma source;Helicons;High density plasmas;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Interplanetary exploration;Plasma acceleration;Plasma diagnostics;Plasma jets;Plasma sources;Proof of principles;Rockets;Spacecraft propulsion},
 booktitle = {48th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit 2012},
 year = {2012}
}


@article{Krishnamurthy.2012b,
 author = {Krishnamurthy, A. and Chen, George and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Keutelian, P. and Orcutt, J. and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2012},
 title = {Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket, HIIPER},
 pages = {1--2},
 journal = {Nuclear {\&} Emerging Technologies for Space (NETS 2012)},
 doi = {10.1080/00295450.2022.2055702}
}


@inproceedings{Krishnamurthy.2012c,
 author = {Krishnamurthy, Akshata and Chen, George and Keutelian, Paul and Ulmen, Benjamin and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Comparison of the Viper Pulsed Fusion Rocket to Prior Fu-sion Space Propulsion Design Studies},
 publisher = {{American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}},
 series = {AIAA SPACE Forum},
 booktitle = {AIAA SPACE 2012 Conference {\&} Exposition},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2012-5146}
}


@inproceedings{Krishnamurthy.2012d,
 author = {Krishnamurthy, Akshata and Chen, George and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Keutelian, Paul A. and Orcutt, John and Miley, George H.},
 title = {HELICON INJECTED INERTIAL PLASMA ELECTROSTATIC ROCKET, HIIPER},
 pages = {3045},
 booktitle = {Nuclear {\&} Emerging Technologies for Space (NETS 2012)},
 year = {2012}
}


@phdthesis{Krishnamurthy.2012e,
 abstract = {The status and further outlook of the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) research at the Institute of Space Systems (IRS) is given. With the beginning of 2011 a project has been set up in order to build an IEC test stand in the IRS Laboratory to broaden the understanding and knowledge of plasma confinement and plasma beam extraction, first in a non-fusion regime. Especially the feasibility of an application for space propulsion will be examined within this project. The planed milestones include several setups for confinement experiments and jet generation studies. The proposed experimental setups and methods will be described, as well as the first grid design and results of this project will be presented.},
 author = {Krishnamurthy, Akshata},
 year = {2012},
 title = {Development and Characterization of an inertial electrostatic confinement thruster},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Krishnamurthy.2013,
 abstract = {HIIPER is a two-stage electric thruster where the plasma production and plasma acceleration are decoupled using a helicon plasma source and inertial electrostatic confinement accelerator. Several numerical and experimental studies are being carried out to characterize the system and the plasma jet. The voltage profile of the helicon-IEC system was studied using COMSOL Multiphysics. A spherical probe is under development to study the net current exiting the helicon. A Faraday cup has been designed and tested to study the current output from the IEC. Associated measurements from the temperature sensor in the Faraday cup s used to determine the thermal power output of the jet. In addition, a thrust plate, not described here, is under development to measure the jet thrust directly. Initial data from the spherical probe and the Faraday cup is presented here. {\copyright} 2013, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Krishnamurthy, A. and Chen, George and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Numerical and experimental measurements in a helicon-IEC thruster},
 keywords = {Comsol multiphysics;Electric thruster;Helicon plasma source;Helicons;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Numerical and experimental study;Plasma acceleration;Plasma jets;Plasma production;Plasma sources;Probes;Propulsion;Spherical probes},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-222-6},
 booktitle = {49th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2013},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2013-3830}
}


@article{Krishnamurthy.2013b,
 author = {Krishnamurthy, A. and Keutelian, P. and Chen, George and Ulmen, B. and Orcutt, J. and Miley, G. H.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {A Fusion Space Probe---Viper, an Ultra High ISP Pulsed Fusion Rocket},
 volume = {2},
 journal = {Journal of Space Exploration}
}


@article{Kulcinski.1996,
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {1996},
 title = {Near Term Commercial Opportunities from Long Range Fusion Research},
 url = {http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm1025.pdf},
 pages = {411--421},
 volume = {30},
 number = {3P2A},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST96-A11962976}
}


@inproceedings{Kulcinski.1997,
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Khater, H. Y.},
 title = {Overview of Neutron/Proton Source Applications from IEC Fusion Devices},
 pages = {507--508},
 volume = {77},
 booktitle = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{Kulcinski.1998,
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 title = {Non-Electric Applications of Fusion Energy - An Important Precursor to Commercial Electric Power},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Kulcinski.1999,
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 title = {Non-electrical power, near-term applications of fusion energy},
 url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/849782/},
 pages = {5--8},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1999.849782}
}


@article{Kulcinski.2003,
 abstract = {A major effort to find near-term, non-electric applications of fusion energy has shown that the production of radioisotopes is attractive. The use of the D3He fusion reaction to produce Positron Emission Tomography (PET) isotopes is described. An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device is particularly well suited to produce low levels of high-energy (14.7 MeV) protons, which in turn, can produce short-lived PET isotopes. The IEC device at the University of Wisconsin has been modified to investigate the potential of this process to be commercially attractive.},
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Weidner, J. W. and Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Ashley, Robert P. and Santarius, John F. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Piefer, Gregory R. and Radel, Ross F.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Alternate applications of fusion-production of radioisotopes},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0042788809&doi=10.13182%2fFST03-A397&partnerID=40&md5=a60ed4d3f1d26926d77b9f9533f148cf},
 keywords = {Electrostatics;Fusion energy;High energy;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device;Neutrons;Positron emission tomography;Protons;Radioisotopes},
 pages = {559--563},
 volume = {44},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST03-A397}
}


@article{Kulcinski.2009,
 abstract = {For the past 15 years, the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC)fusion group at the University of Wisconsin-Madison has been conducting experiments to demonstrate that there can be many near term applications of fusion research long before the production of electricity in commercial fusion power plants. This research has concentrated on three fuel cycles: DD, D3He, and 3He3He. Some of the major accomplishments are listed below: a. The production of {\&}gt; l08 DD neutrons per second on a steady state basis b. The production of pulsed DD neutrons to over 10 10 per second in 10 Hz, 100 \textgreek{m}S bursts. c The production of 14.7 MeV protons at {\&}gt; 108 per second (steady state) from the D 3He reaction. d. Demonstrated the detection of the explosive C-4 with steady state DD neutrons. e. Demonstrated the detection of Highly Enriched U (HEU) with pulsed DD neutron fluxes. f. Production of the positron emission tomography (PET) isotopes, 94mTc and 13N using D 3He protons. g. Production of the first measured 3He 3He fusion reactions in an IEC device. h. Development of unique diagnostic techniques to measure the rate, spectrum, and location of fusion reactions in IEC devices, i. Use of an IEC device to study the behavior of materials at high temperature during charged particle bombardment. The accomplishments above were carried out in 3 devices HOMER, 3HeCTRE, and HELIOS that have operated up to 180 kV and meter currents of 65 mA. New applications are currently being explored and expanded roles for the IEC device will be described.},
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Emmert, Gilbert A. and Bonomo, Richard M. and Alderson, Eric C. and {Becerra Toledo}, G. E. and Boris, David R. and Donovan, David C. and Egle, Brian J. and Sorebo, J. H. and Zenobia, Samuel J.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Near term applications of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion research},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-68949194092&doi=10.13182%2fFST09-21&partnerID=40&md5=22e2ad2840f2a2198e399a2f8a4cd179},
 keywords = {Charged particles;Diagnostic techniques;Electrostatics;Explosives detection;Fusion power plant;Fusion reactions;High temperature;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutrons;New applications;Particle bombardment;Positron emission tomography;Positron emission tomography (PET);Thermonuclear reactions;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 pages = {493--500},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-21}
}


@article{Kulcinski.2011,
 abstract = {Gridded inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices use a 10-200 kV voltage difference to accelerate ions through a 0.1-10 mTorr background gas in a spherical or cylindrical geometry. The detailed investigation of a gridded IEC device using DD fuel has resulted in several surprises that have greatly altered our perception of how these systems operate. It was found that there are at least 4 major misconceptions that have been in place for over 15 years on how such IEC systems operate. These misconceptions range all the way from what energetic ion is causing the majority of fusions, to the energy and charge state of the reacting ions. Experimental results will illustrate some of the surprising reactions that are taking place in DD gridded system.},
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Emmert, Gilbert A. and Bonomo, Richard M. and Alderson, Eric C. and {Becerra Toledo}, G. E. and Campbell, L. and Donovan, David C. and Egle, Brian J. and Garrison, Lauren M. and McEvoy, A. M. and Michalak, Matt K. and Schuff, C. M. and Zenobia, Samuel J.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {New insight into gridded inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84867592914&doi=10.13182%2fFST10-283&partnerID=40&md5=133dae69421e86728ed2fe1300645487},
 keywords = {Background gas;Charge state;Cylinders (shapes);cylindrical geometry;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Energetic ion;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ions;Reacting ions;Voltage difference},
 pages = {607--614},
 volume = {60},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST10-283}
}


@inproceedings{Kulcinski.2013,
 abstract = {Electrical energy is not the only commercial product that can be produced by the fusion of light elements. The reaction products from many fusion fuels can be used to provide products that can be of a near-term benefit to society well before practical fusion power plants are a reality. The use of fusion products (neutrons and protons) in Homeland Security applications to detect clandestine materials or the production of short half life Positron Emission Tomography isotopes for medical diagnostics of abnormalities (e.g. cancers) in the human body are but a few of the near term examples of the near term use of fusion energy. This paper shows how one of the many ways to promote fusion, namely the use of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement concept, is uniquely suited to this task worldwide.},
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 title = {Non-electric applications of the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion concept},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84883385481&doi=10.13182%2fFST13-A18104&partnerID=40&md5=7037f00a8fd1cf0d53c10263ed8fdf19},
 keywords = {Chemical elements;Commercial products;Diagnosis;Electrical energy;Electrostatics;Fusion power plant;Homeland security applications;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Medical diagnostics;Non-electric application;Positron emission tomography},
 pages = {365--372},
 volume = {64},
 booktitle = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.13182/FST13-A18104}
}


@article{Kulcinski.2013b,
 abstract = {The University of Wisconsin-Madison has conducted research on gridded inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices for the past 18 years. There are currently 4 experimental devices operating at voltages up to 180 kV and 60 mA. These devices have uncovered several new phenomena that have greatly improved our understanding of IEC devices. Recent advances include the discovery of a significant negative ion component of DD plasmas and spatial profiles of fusion reactions that did not conform to our prior understanding of these devices. The use of this technology has also contributed to our understanding of surface damage to high temperature in-vessel W components after even low exposures to energetic He ion fluences. Expansion of the voltage-ion current parameter space to 300 kV-200 m A in the near future will help our understanding of advanced fusion fuel cycles.},
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Emmert, Gilbert A. and Bonomo, Richard M. and Alderson, Eric C. and {Becerra Toledo}, G. E. and Garrison, Lauren M. and Hall, K. B. and McEvoy, A. M. and Michalak, Matt K. and Schuff, C. M.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Recent advances in iec physics and technology at the university of wisconsin},
 keywords = {Advanced fusion;Electrostatic devices;Experimental devices;High temperature;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Negative ions;Spatial profiles;Surface damages;University of Wisconsin;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 pages = {373--378},
 volume = {64},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST12-576}
}


@article{Kulcinski.2015,
 abstract = {For nearly two decades, as many as 4 Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) devices have been operated simultaneously at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Over that time period we have learned that the early perceptions of how IEC devices operate are quite different from the actual performance in the Laboratory. Over the past 2 years we have gained even more understanding of IEC physics and technology. Experimental measurements and theoretical improvements have better characterized both the negative ions that contribute up to $\sim$10{\%} of the fusion rate in some cases and the neutral energy distributions in IEC devices at moderate pressure (0.07-0.7 Pa $\approx$ 0.5-5 mTorr). We also now understand more of why operation with helium plasmas has such a detrimental effect on high voltage performance of the traditional tungsten alloy grid wires. Most of the previous IEC work had been confined to {\textless} 100 kV with short operation times up to 150 kV. We have recently expanded our operating regime to $\approx$ 200 kV anode-cathode potential difference, which is, to our knowledge, the highest-voltage IEC operation reported in the worldwide IEC literature. Several design modifications were required to achieve steady-state operation at these high voltages and some are described in this article.},
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Emmert, Gilbert A. and Bonomo, Richard M. and {Becerra Toledo}, G. E. and Fancher, Aaron N. and Garrison, Lauren M. and Hall, K. B. and Jasica, Matthew J. and McEvoy, A. M. and Navarro, M. X. and Michalak, Matt K. and Schuff, C. M.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Progress in the understanding of gridded inertial electrostatic confinement devices at the university of Wisconsin},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84940645355&doi=10.13182%2fFST14-934&partnerID=40&md5=0878214b4a2d20a6c40887aeff131c0d},
 keywords = {Anode-cathode potential difference;Design modifications;Electrodes;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Moderate pressures;Negative ions;Neutral energy distributions;Steady-state operation;Tungsten alloys;University of Wisconsin;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 pages = {314--318},
 volume = {68},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST14-934}
}


@patent{Kulcinski.2016,
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Patent Application Publication ( 10 ) Pub . No .: US 2017 / 0215756A1},
 number = {2017016799}
}


@article{Kulcinski.2017,
 abstract = {This paper describes a system to detect landmines or IEDs by the use of small DD or DT neutron sources carried by a drone. The neutron source is powered by beaming RF or laser energy, at a distance of up to a km from the target, to a relay drone high ($\approx$ 100 meters) above the neutron drone that converts the RF energy to electricity. The relay drone uses the electricity to generate another set of RF waves, and sends the energy down to the neutron drone to power the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion neutron generator. The neutrons emitted by the IEC generator interrogate the ground below the mobile neutron drone through neutron activation and the orbiting detector drones collect the gamma ray signals to determine the composition and location of the objects below. When the N/C/O signal is close to known chemical explosives signatures, the object is tagged for further investigation. {\copyright} American Nuclear Society.},
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Johnson, K. and Megahed, A. and Bonomo, Richard M.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Identification of landmines and IEDs using compact fusion neutron sources on drones},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85029919388&doi=10.1080%2f15361055.2017.1333862&partnerID=40&md5=ac5d8f49dcb9b58cb17079d5e95a3006},
 keywords = {Bombs (ordnance);Chemical activation;Chemical explosive;Compact fusion neutron source;Drones;Explosives;Gamma ray signals;Gamma rays;IEDs;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Land mine;Landmine detection;Landmines;Laser energies;Neutron activation;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Target drones;Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)},
 pages = {455--460},
 volume = {72},
 number = {3},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2017.1333862}
}


@article{Kulcinski.2017b,
 author = {Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Radel, Ross F. and Davis, Andrew},
 year = {2017},
 title = {An Improved Near Term 14 MeV Neutron Test Facility for Fusion Power Plant Materials},
 pages = {248--254},
 volume = {72},
 number = {3},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2017.1333861}
}


@article{KumarSharma.2021,
 abstract = {A compact Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) system is designed and fabricated for D-D fusion neutron generation. The IEC system consists of two concentric spherical grids connected to high voltage power supply inside a vacuum chamber filled with deuterium gas. The diameter of inner grid cathode is 40 mm and the diameter of outer grid anode is 120 mm. These grids are placed inside a SS304L cylindrical vacuum chamber of 300 mm diameter and 450 mm length. The IEC system has been operated at 24 kV in deuterium gas medium at 0.01--0.02 mbar, and the neutron yield of {\~{}} 105n/s is measured with neutron monitor. The temperature inside the IEC system is also measured using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) during D-D gas discharges. Degradation in vacuum inside the chamber causes the instability in deuterium plasma which reduces the neutron yield and increases the cathode temperature. {\copyright} 2021 Elsevier Ltd},
 author = {{Kumar Sharma}, S. and Tewari, S. V. and Waghmare, N. and {Jagannadha Raju}, S.D.V.S. and {Divakar Rao}, K. and Sharma, A.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Compact inertial electrostatic confinement D-D fusion neutron generator},
 keywords = {Cathodes;D-D fusion;Deuterium;Deuterium gas;Electric discharges;Fiber Bragg;Fiber Bragg Grating;Fiber Bragg gratings;Fusion neutrons;Grid-connected;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron;Neutron generators;Neutron sources;Neutron yields;Neutrons;Plasma;Plasma stability;Spherical grids;Vacuum chambers},
 volume = {159},
 issn = {03064549},
 journal = {Annals of Nuclear Energy},
 doi = {10.1016/j.anucene.2021.108358}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2003,
 abstract = {We create the random complex media of high-power density in low-energy nanosecond vacuum discharges. Hard X-ray emission efficiency, generation of energetic ions ($\sim$1 MeV) and neutrons, trapping and releasing of fast ions and/or X-rays from interelectrode aerosol ensembles are the subject of our study. The neutrons from DD microfusion, as well as the modelling of some interstellar nuclear burning due to microexplosive nucleosynthesis are discussed. The value of neutron yield from DD fusion in interelectrode space varies and amounts to $\sim$105--107/4\textgreek{p} per shot under $\approx$ 1 J of total energy deposited to create all discharge processes},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Skowronek, M.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Hard X-ray bursts and DD microfusion neutrons from complex plasmas of vacuum discharge},
 pages = {1187--1196},
 volume = {61},
 number = {6},
 issn = {0973-7111},
 journal = {Pramana},
 doi = {10.1007/BF02704415}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2006,
 abstract = {We create and operate with a random interelectrode media of high power density using the low energy nanosecond vacuum discharges. The subjects of our study are hard x-ray emission efficiency, generation of energetic ions ($\sim$1 MeV) and neutrons and the trapping and release of fast ions and/or x-rays from interelectrode complex ensembles of cold micro grains with some micro plasmas. The value of the neutron yield from DD microfusion in the interelectrode space is variable and amounts to $\sim$105--107/4\textgreek{p} per shot under $\approx$1 J of total energy stored to create all discharge processes. In a limiting case of total trapping of fast deuterium ions by the dense `dusty cloud' of clusters under partial hard x-ray diffusion and multiple fusion events inside, the pulsating neutron yield has maximum values (table-top complex plasma `microreactor'). The role of virtual cathode formation and electrostatic mechanism of ions acceleration at the regime of unstable current carrying are discussed briefly.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Skowronek, M. and Dufty, J.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Multiple DD fusion events at interelectrode media of nanosecond vacuum discharge},
 pages = {4375},
 volume = {39},
 number = {17},
 issn = {0305-4470},
 journal = {Journal of Physics A-Mathematical and General},
 doi = {10.1088/0305-4470/39/17/S11}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2009,
 abstract = {The generation of energetic ions and DD neutrons from microfusion at the interelectrode space of a low-energy nanosecond vacuum discharge has been demonstrated recently [1, 2]. However, the physics of fusion processes and some results regarding the neutron yield from the database accumulated were poorly understood. The present work presents a detailed particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of the discharge experimental conditions using a fully electrodynamic code. The dynamics of all charge particles was reconstructed in time and anode-cathode (AC) space. The principal role of a virtual cathode (VC) and the corresponding single and double potential wells formed in the interelectrode space are recognized. The calculated depth of the quasistationary potential well (PW) of the VC is about 50-60 keV, and the D+ ions being trapped by this well accelerate up to energy values needed to provide collisional DD nuclear synthesis. The correlation between the calculated potential well structures (and dynamics) and the neutron yield observed is discussed. In particular, ions in the potential well undergo high-frequency ($\sim$80 MHz) harmonic oscillations accompanied by a corresponding regime of oscillatory neutron yield. Both experiment and PIC simulations illustrate favorable scaling of the fusion power density for the chosen IECF scheme based on nanosecond vacuum discharge. {\copyright} 2009 IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Skowronek, M. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Dufty, J.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement and DD fusion at interelectrode media of nanosecond vacuum discharge. PIC simulations and experiment},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-67650865893&doi=10.1088%2f1751-8113%2f42%2f21%2f214041&partnerID=40&md5=49b6bb10c2823a379b94e0008746fd2b},
 volume = {42},
 number = {21},
 issn = {17518113},
 journal = {Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical},
 doi = {10.1088/1751-8113/42/21/214041}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2010,
 abstract = {Properties of an aerosol substance with a high power density in the interelectrode space of a nano-second vacuum discharge are studied. The possibilities of emission and/or trapping of fast ions and hard X-rays by ensembles of clusters and microparticles are analyzed. The possibility of simultaneous partial trapping (diffusion) of X-rays and complete trapping of fast ions by a cluster ensemble is demonstrated experimentally. Due to such trapping, the aerosol ensemble transforms into a {\textquotedbl}dusty{\textquotedbl} microreactor that can be used to investigate a certain class of nuclear processes, including collisional DD microfusion. Operating regimes of such a microreactor and their reproducibility were studied. On the whole, the generation efficiency of hard X-rays and neutrons in the proposed vacuum discharge with a hollow cathode can be higher by two orders of magnitude than that in a system {\textquotedbl}high-power laser pulse-cluster cloud.{\textquotedbl} Multiply repeated nuclear fusion accompanied by pulsating DD neutron emission was reproducibly detected in experiment. Ion acceleration mechanisms in the interelectrode space and the fundamental role of the virtual cathode in observed nuclear fusion processes are discussed. {\copyright} 2010 Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Skowronek, M.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement and nuclear fusion in the interelectrode plasma of a nanosecond vacuum discharge. I: Experiment},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78650608785&doi=10.1134%2fS1063780X10130222&partnerID=40&md5=c90aed485d169abbe6ff3a65795b1ea2},
 pages = {1219--1226},
 volume = {36},
 number = {13},
 issn = {1063780X},
 journal = {Plasma Physics Reports},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063780X10130222}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2010b,
 abstract = {Results of particle-in-sell simulations of ion acceleration by using the KARAT code in a cylindrical geometry in the problem formulation corresponding to an actual experiment with a low-energy vacuum discharge with a hollow cathode are presented. The fundamental role of the formed virtual cathode is analyzed. The space-time dynamics of potential wells related to the formation of the virtual cathode is discussed. Quasi-steady potential wells (with a depth of {\~{}}80{\%} of the applied voltage) cause acceleration of deuterium ions to energies about the electron beam energy ({\~{}}50 keV). In the well, a quasi-isotropic velocity distribution function of fast ions forms. The results obtained are compared with available data on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF). In particular, similar correlations between the structure of potential wells and the neutron yield, as well as the scaling of the fusion power density, which increases with decreasing virtual cathode radius and increasing potential well depth, are considered. The chosen electrode configuration and potential well parameters provide power densities of nuclear DD fusion in a nanosecond vacuum discharge noticeably higher than those achieved in other similar IECF systems. {\copyright} 2010 Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement and nuclear fusion in the interelectrode plasma of a nanosecond vacuum discharge. II: Particle-in-cell simulations},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78650615376&doi=10.1134%2fS1063780X10130234&partnerID=40&md5=e6e09baa465705295c8362b0fa6551d8},
 pages = {1227--1234},
 volume = {36},
 number = {13},
 issn = {1063780X},
 journal = {Plasma Physics Reports},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063780X10130234}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2011,
 abstract = {The energetic ions and DD neutrons from microfusion at the interelectrode space of a low energy nanosecond vacuum discharge with deuterium-loaded Pd anode has been demonstrated recently. To understand better the physics of fusion processes the detailed PIC simulation of the discharge experimental conditions have been developed using a fully electrodynamic code KARAT. The dynamics of main charge particle species was recon-structed in time and interelectrode space. The principal role of a virtual cathode (VC) and the corresponding single and double potential well formed in the interelectrode space are recognised. The calculated depth \textgreek{f} of the quasistationary potential well (PW) of the VC is about 50-60 kV, and the D+ ions being trapped by this well accelerate up to energy values needed to provide collisional DD nuclear synthesis. Both experiment and PIC simulations illustrate very favourable scaling of the fusion power density at decreasing of VC radius ({\~{}}\textgreek{f}2/r4VC) for the chosen inertial electrostatic confinement fusion scheme based on miniature nanosecond vacuum discharge. Meanwhile, the initial stage of discharge is understood still poorly. When voltage is applied, the electron beam extracted from cathode starts to interact with the surface of deuterium- loaded Pd anode. This early stage of discharge manifests sometime the peaks registered by photomultipliers which are similar to neutron ones from time-of-flight measure under the study of collisional DD synthesis at the further stages of discharge. The detailed study of Pd anode surface morphology have been performed and recognized, in particular, the number of various pores and craters of different sizes. We remark that besides of rather usual craters (due to electron beams - anode interaction) some of the craters on the Pd anode surface may correspond to anode ectons (explosive centres) and consider their possible nature. Specifics of warm dense matter (WDM) generated at different stage of discharge is discussed. The data obtained are compared with recent results on initiation of DD reactions by electron beams at deuterium -loaded Pd foils and correspondent data on their surface morphology. {\copyright} 2011 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH {\&} Co. KGaA, Weinheim.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Karpukhin, V. T. and Valyano, V. E.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Warm Dense Matter Generation and DD Synthesis at Vacuum Discharge with Deuterium-Loaded Pd Anode},
 keywords = {collisional synthesis;ions acceleration;neutron yield;potential well;Surface morphology;virtual cathode},
 pages = {427--443},
 volume = {51},
 number = {5},
 issn = {08631042},
 journal = {Contributions to Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1002/ctpp.201110014}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2015c,
 abstract = {In this paper, we continue the discussion of the experimental results on the yield of DD neutrons and hard x-rays in the nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD) with a virtual cathode, which was started in the previous article of this issue, and previously (Kurilenkov Y K et al 2006 J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 39 4375). We have considered here the regimes of very dense interelectrode aerosol ensembles, in which diffusion of even hard x-rays is found. The yield of DD neutrons in these regimes is conditioned not only by the head-on deuteron-deuteron collisions in the potential well of virtual cathode, but also by the channel of {\textquotedbl}deuteron-deuterium cluster{\textquotedbl} reaction, which exceeds overall yield of neutrons per a shot by more than an order of magnitude, bringing it up to $\sim$ 107/(4\textgreek{p}). Very bright bursts of hard x-rays are also represented and discussed here. Presumably, their nature may be associated with the appearance in the NVD of some properties of random laser in the x-ray spectrum. Good preceding agreeing of the experiment on the DD fusion in the NVD with its particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations provides a basis to begin consideration of nuclear burning {\textquotedbl}proton-boron{\textquotedbl} in the NVD, which will be accompanied by the release of alpha particles only. With this objective in view, there has been started the PIC-simulation of aneutronic burning of p-B11, and its preliminary results are presented.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Samoylov, I. S. and Ostashev, V. E.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {On the features of bursts of neutrons, hard x-rays and alpha-particles in the pulse vacuum discharge with a virtual cathode and self-organization},
 volume = {653},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/653/1/012026}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2015d,
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Karpukhin, V. T. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Oginov, A. V.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Nuclear burning in a compact scheme of inertial electrostatic confinement as imitation of stellar nucleosynthesis. Experiment and PIC modeling},
 url = {http://stacks.iop.org/1742-6596/653/i=1/a=012025?key=crossref.85e48508cf8905a5635445c2c3f50c9a},
 pages = {012025},
 volume = {653},
 journal = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/653/1/012025}
}


@inproceedings{Kurilenkov.2016b,
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y.},
 title = {Simulation of proton--boron nuclear burning in the potential well of virtual cathode at nanosecond vacuum discharge},
 url = {http://stacks.iop.org/1742-6596/774/i=1/a=012133?key=crossref.8d4df200b0d7f79f01021174e0e8226a},
 pages = {012133},
 volume = {774},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2016},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/774/1/012133}
}


@inproceedings{Kurilenkov.2017,
 abstract = {Earlier, there was demonstrated generation of DD neutrons in an interelectrode medium of a low-energy (similar to 1 J) nanosecond vacuum discharge with a hollow cathode and a deuterium-loaded Pd anode. There was revealed essential role of formation of a virtual cathode and a potential well corresponding thereto in the processes of collisional DD synthesis in the interelectrode space. In this work, we have obtained as a result of an experiment and discussed the neutron yield at the very initial stage of the discharge, when the beam of auto-electrons just starts to irradiate the non-ideal surface of the deuterium-loaded Pd anode.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Karpukhin, V. T. and Oginov, A. V. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 title = {On nuclear DD synthesis at the initial stage of nanosecond vacuum discharge with deuterium-loaded Pd anode},
 keywords = {Fusion;Hydrogen;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;INTERELECTRODE PLASMA},
 volume = {946},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2018},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/946/1/012025}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2018,
 abstract = {Neutrons from DD fusion in the interelectrode space of a table-top, low-energy, nanosecond vacuum discharge with a deuterium-loaded Pd anode have been demonstrated earlier. In addition, the principal role of a virtual cathode and the corresponding deep potential well formed in the interelectrode space are recognized under detailed particle-in-cell simulations of the discharge experimental conditions using a fully electrodynamic code. PIC modelling has allowed the identification of the scheme of small-scale experiments with a rather old branch of plasma physics as the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion. The goal of this work is to present and discuss in detail the available experimental results on deuteron oscillations followed by pulsating DD neutron yield in this scheme based on nanosecond vacuum discharge. PIC simulations of some experimental regimes of pulsating neutron yield are also shown and discussed, as well as comparisons with an available similar scheme of periodical oscillating plasmas spheres for fusion. {\copyright} 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH {\&} Co. KGaA, Weinheim},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Oginov, A. V. and Karpukhin, V. T.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Oscillating ions under Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) based on nanosecond vacuum discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85047533872&doi=10.1002%2fctpp.201700188&partnerID=40&md5=8bbbeb9194a3c63de91f23b1f767d0bd},
 keywords = {Inertial electrostatic confinement;neutron yield;virtual cathode},
 pages = {952--960},
 volume = {58},
 number = {10},
 issn = {08631042},
 journal = {Contributions to Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1002/ctpp.201700188}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2018b,
 abstract = {Neutrons from DD fusion in the interelectrode space of a table-top, low-energy, nanosecond vacuum discharge with a deuterium-loaded Pd anode have been demonstrated earlier. In addition, the principal role of a virtual cathode and the corresponding deep potential well formed in the interelectrode space are recognized under detailed particle-in-cell simulations of the discharge experimental conditions using a fully electrodynamic code. PIC modelling has allowed the identification of the scheme of small-scale experiments with a rather old branch of plasma physics as the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion. The goal of this work is to present and discuss in detail the available experimental results on deuteron oscillations followed by pulsating DD neutron yield in this scheme based on nanosecond vacuum discharge. PIC simulations of some experimental regimes of pulsating neutron yield are also shown and discussed, as well as comparisons with an available similar scheme of periodical oscillating plasmas spheres for fusion.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Oginov, A. V. and Karpukhin, V. T.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Oscillating ions under Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) based on nanosecond vacuum discharge},
 keywords = {EQUILIBRIUM;GENERATION;Inertial electrostatic confinement;INTERELECTRODE PLASMA;neutron yield;NUCLEAR-FUSION;STABILITY;virtual cathode},
 pages = {952--960},
 volume = {58},
 number = {10},
 issn = {08631042},
 journal = {Contributions to Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1002/ctpp.201700188}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2021,
 abstract = {One of the main problems for inertial electrostatic confinement devices with electron injection is the space charge neutralization. This work is devoted to the analysis of the problem of plasma quasineutrality in the scheme of plasma oscillatory confinement based on nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD). Electrodynamics modeling of the processes of aneutronic fusion of proton--boron showed that the plasma in the NVD, and especially on the discharge axis, really corresponds to a quasineutral regime, which is rather different from the well-known scheme of periodically oscillating plasma spheres (POPS). In this case, small oscillations in the NVD are a mechanism of resonant ion heating, unlike coherent compressions in the original POPS model. The scaling of the fusion power turns out to be close to the fusion scheme with POPS, but differs significantly in the values of the parameter of quasineutrality and the compression ratio. {\copyright} 2021 Federal Informational-Analytical Center of the Defense Industry. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Oginov, A. V. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {On the plasma quasineutrality under oscillatory confinement based on a nanosecond vacuum discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85123010028&doi=10.51368%2f1996-0948-2021-6-14-23&partnerID=40&md5=a568b0d2445b78c832ac0b8a3054d594},
 keywords = {Electric discharges;Electrostatic devices;Fusion power;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;nuclear fusion;oscillatory confinement;Periodically oscillating plasma sphere;Quasineutrality;scaling of fusion power;Scalings;vacuum discharge;virtual cathode;Virtual cathodes},
 pages = {14--23},
 number = {6},
 issn = {19960948},
 journal = {Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.51368/1996-0948-2021-6-14-23}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2021b,
 abstract = {Previously, we discussed the effect of partial trapping and X-ray bursts with energies less than or of the order of K-alpha-Pd in a dense interelectrode polydisperse medium of a nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD) with an anode made from Pd tubes. In this work, we present and simulate an experiment in an NVD with an iron anode, where both the release and trapping of the X-ray radiation by the interelectrode medium of K-alpha-Fe quanta, the energy of which is more than three times lower than in palladium, is observed. This indicates that the required energy of hard quanta in X-ray bursts, which is close to the K-alpha line, can be obtained by choosing the anode material.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {On Release and Trapping of the K-alpha-Fe Line by the Interelectrode Medium of Nanosecond Vacuum Discharge},
 keywords = {diffusion of X-ray quanta;GENERATION;Inertial electrostatic confinement;nanosecond vacuum discharge;Plasma;polydisperse interelectrode medium},
 pages = {759--762},
 volume = {47},
 number = {7},
 issn = {1063780X},
 journal = {Plasma Physics Reports},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063780X21070102}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2021c,
 abstract = {We present the results of experiments on the aneutronic fusion of proton-boron (pB) in a single miniature device with electrodynamic (oscillatory) plasma confinement. The device is based on a low energy (similar to 1-2 J) nanosecond vacuum discharge with a virtual cathode, the field of which accelerates protons and boron ions to the energies required for pB synthesis (similar to 100-300 keV) under oscillating ions' head-on collisions. The yields of a particles registered for different conditions of the experiment are presented and discussed in detail. The experiment was preceded by particle-in-cell modeling of main processes accompanying pB reaction within the framework of the full electromagnetic code KARAT. The summary yield of alpha particles of about 5 x 10(4)/ 4 pi was obtained during the pulse-periodic operation of the generator within total 4 mu s of the high voltage applied, which is similar to 10 alpha particles/ns.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Oginov, A. V. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Proton-boron fusion in a compact scheme of plasma oscillatory confinement},
 keywords = {INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;NUCLEAR-FUSION},
 volume = {103},
 number = {4},
 issn = {24700045},
 journal = {Physical Review E},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.103.043208}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2021d,
 abstract = {The effect of partial {\textquotedbl}trapping{\textquotedbl} of X-ray quanta with energies less than or on the order of 10 keV by the interelectrode polydisperse medium of a nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD) with a virtual cathode, which is sometimes accompanied by high-intensity bursts of X-ray radiation, is presented and discussed. A model of diffusion and release of X-rays in an NVD based on the solution of the equation for the flux of quanta in a scattering and absorbing interelectrode medium is proposed. The results of the presented model are compared with the scheme of a stochastic laser proposed by V.S. Letokhov.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Smetanin, I. V. and Oginov, A. V. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {X-Ray Trapping and Bursts in a Complex Plasma of Nanosecond Vacuum Discharge},
 keywords = {diffusion of X-ray quanta;Fusion;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;polydisperse medium;RANDOM LASERS;SCATTERING;SIZE;stochastic laser;virtual cathode},
 pages = {752--758},
 volume = {47},
 number = {7},
 issn = {1063780X},
 journal = {Plasma Physics Reports},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063780X21070096}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2022,
 abstract = {Abstract: One of the main problems for inertial electrostatic confinement devices with electron injection is the space charge neutralization. This work is devoted to the analysis of the problem of plasma quasineutrality in the scheme of plasma oscillatory confinement based on nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD). Electrodynamics modeling of the processes of aneutronic fusion of proton--boron showed that the plasma in the NVD, and especially on the discharge axis, really corresponds to a quasineutral regime, which is rather different from the well-known scheme of periodically oscillating plasma spheres (POPS). In this case, small oscillations in the NVD are a mechanism of resonant ion heating, unlike coherent compressions in the original POPS model. The scaling of the fusion power turns out to be close to the fusion scheme with POPS, but differs significantly in the values of the parameter of quasineutrality and the compression ratio. {\copyright} 2022, Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Oginov, A. V. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 year = {2022},
 title = {On the Plasma Quasineutrality under Oscillatory Confinement Based on a Nanosecond Vacuum Discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85135182713&doi=10.1134%2fS1063780X22200132&partnerID=40&md5=e0d5d24ff2dc7da160fd9d22723cb086},
 keywords = {nuclear fusion;oscillatory confinement;scaling of fusion power;vacuum discharge;virtual cathode},
 pages = {567--573},
 volume = {48},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1063780X},
 journal = {Plasma Physics Reports},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063780X22200132}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2022c,
 abstract = {Earlier, in a nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD) with a deuterated Pd anode, the appearance of DD neutrons was observed not only at the well-studied quasi-stationary stage, where a virtual cathode (VC) appears in the interelectrode space, but also at the initial stage of the discharge. An analysis of the experiment shows that the autoelectron beam can play the role of a kind of trigger for starting DD fusion processes on the surface or in the volume of the Pd anode, but its mechanism at the initial stage of the discharge remained unclear. In this work, PIC modeling of the possible partial penetration of a beam of autoelectrons into hollow anode Pd tubes is carried out. This leads to the formation of very small short-lived VCs inside individual Pd tubes, where, starting from a current of 100 A, DD microfusion is possible. It is shown that in devices with oscillating ions, the favorable scaling of the DD fusion power, which increases with decreasing VC radius, can be retained up to r(VC) approximate to 0.02 cm.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Oginov, A. V.},
 year = {2022},
 title = {On Scaling of DD Fusion Power in a Nanosecond Vacuum Discharge},
 keywords = {DD neutrons;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;Plasma;potential well;vacuum discharge;virtual cathode},
 pages = {443--448},
 volume = {48},
 number = {4},
 issn = {1063780X},
 journal = {Plasma Physics Reports},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063780X22040080}
}


@article{Kurilenkov.2023,
 abstract = {Earlier, the experiments on the aneutronic proton-boron (pB) fusion in a miniature nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD) with oscillatory plasma confinement and correspondent {\textless}i{\textgreater}\textgreek{a}{\textless}/i{\textgreater} particles yield were presented. In this work, we consider some specific features of oscillatory confinement as a relatively new type of plasma confinement for fusion. Particle-in-cell (PiC) simulations of pB fusion processes have shown that the plasma in NVD, and especially on the discharge axis, is in a state close to a quasineutral one, which is rather different from the conditions in the well-known scheme of periodically oscillating plasma spheres (POPSs) suggested earlier for fusion. Apparently, small-scale oscillations in NVD are a mechanism of resonant ion heating, unlike coherent compressions in the original POPS scheme. Nevertheless, the favorable scaling of the fusion power in NVD turns out to be close to the POPS fusion but differs significantly both in the compression ratio and in the values of the parameter of quasineutrality. In addition, unlike the POPS scheme, PiC simulation reveals that the distribution functions of protons and boron ions in NVD are non-Maxwellian. Therefore, we have an aneutronic pB synthesis in a nonequilibrium plasma remaining ``nonignited'' on the discharge axis.},
 author = {Kurilenkov, Yu. K. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Oginov, A. V. and Gus'kov, S. Y. and Samoylov, I. S. and Batani, Dimitri},
 year = {2023},
 title = {Oscillating Plasmas for Proton- Boron Fusion in Miniature Vacuum Discharge},
 pages = {9563197},
 volume = {2023},
 issn = {02630346},
 journal = {Laser and Particle Beams},
 doi = {10.1155/2023/9563197}
}


@article{Kurt.2011,
 abstract = {A new cathode modeling with stationary multi-component cathode approach is suggested for an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device and some preliminary simulation studies based on the potential function of this cathode have been presented. The ions are accelerated due to the Coulomb force on a 2D plane and the central grid is assumed to have 6 point-wise and negatively charged at the middle. The model includes a repulsive force that stems from the screening effect of atoms at the vicinity of cathode. The simulations have proven that the particle trajectories are highly complex in the new potential well; in fact, the prediction of the particle route is observed to be strictly dependent on the control parameters such as the grid radius, ion current, voltage and initial position of the ion. {\copyright} 2010 John Wiley {\&} Sons, Ltd.},
 author = {Kurt, Erol},
 year = {2011},
 title = {A stationary multi-component cathode modeling and ion trajectories for an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78751472710&doi=10.1002%2fer.1763&partnerID=40&md5=45504da882b89e9ed168dc1790e0ca82},
 keywords = {Control parameters;Coulomb forces;Electrostatics;Fusion;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Initial position;Ion currents;Ion trajectories;Ions;Multicomponents;Particle trajectories;Potential function;potential well;Potential wells;Repulsive forces;Screening effect;Simulation studies;Stationary multi-component cathode},
 pages = {89--95},
 volume = {35},
 number = {2},
 issn = {0363907X},
 journal = {International Journal of Energy Research},
 doi = {10.1002/er.1763}
}


@article{Kurt.2011e,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device modeling has been carried out. Finite element method is used in a 3D media in order to identify the potential and electrical fields inside the device. The effects of different materials on the electrostatic features are found. In addition, different geometric arrangements for cathode sphere (i.e. inner grid) are considered for the determination of spatial potential and electrical field. The effects of dielectric materials such as porcelain and polystyrene as the cathode holder have also been explored. It is found that porcelain giving a minimal potential value at the center of inner grid in order to confine ions. Increase in number of vertical rings on the inner grid diminishes the bottom corner of electrical potential, thereby ions are scattered to the entire region of the inner grid, thereby, an optimal shape for the inner grid can be adjusted for a better ion core at the middle of the grid for the confinement. {\copyright} 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.},
 author = {Kurt, Erol and Arslan, S. and G{\"u}ven, M. E.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Effects of grid structures and dielectric materials of the holder in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device},
 keywords = {Dielectric;Fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inner grid},
 pages = {404--412},
 volume = {30},
 number = {5},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-011-9393-4}
}


@article{Kurt.2012,
 abstract = {A 3D electrostatic modeling of an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device has been realized. Finite element method is considered in order to identify the potential and electrical fields inside the spherical device. Two different material types are examined for the holder part of the cathode by comparing the field results. The different structures of cathode spheres are investigated for the determination of minimal and maximal field values; thereby the effect of structures on the fields and confinement process has been estimated. Parallel to our previous study, the porcelain holder presents better homogeneous field and at the center of the inner sphere. In addition, an increase of vertical rings on the inner grid affects the bottom corner of electrical potential, thereby ions are scattered to the entire region of the inner grid. According to the analyzes, there should be an optimal number vertical rings for the cathode grid structures so that one can achieve a better ion core at the middle of the grid for the confinement process. {\copyright} 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Kurt, Erol and Arslan, S.},
 year = {2012},
 title = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device modeling and the effects of different cathode structures to the fields},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84866976450&doi=10.1016%2fj.enconman.2011.12.033&partnerID=40&md5=fb61836522ee8833c35cd96de1bad774},
 keywords = {Cathode sphere;Cathode structure;Cathodes;Dielectric;Dielectric materials;Different structure;Electrical field;Electrical potential;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatic modeling;Electrostatics;Field values;Finite element method;Fusion;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Grid structures;Homogeneous field;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion cores;Optimal number;Spheres},
 pages = {55--62},
 volume = {63},
 issn = {01968904},
 journal = {Energy Conversion and Management},
 doi = {10.1016/j.enconman.2011.12.033}
}


@article{Kurt.2016,
 abstract = {This paper reports the explorations on the particle dynamics, ion distribution, energy spectra and temperature in a new-designed inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device in case of low azimuthal magnetic field. The proposed design has six bar-sized cathodes at the vicinity of the central region and a central DC current-carrying bar injects a homogeneous azimuthal magnetic flux on the particles. The cylindrical device is simulated in the fully ionized Deuterium media. Following the 3D design of the chamber, the real-time simulations have been performed by the time integration of the electrical and magnetic forces. The model uses the many-body approach with the particle--particle and particle--chamber interactions. To implement the particle--chamber interaction, the finite difference method has been applied. Besides, the model includes reflection effects of particles from the electrically grounded chamber wall. According to the simulations, the particle trajectories exhibit complex fluctuations in the central region and nearby the chamber walls. The ion temperature has been calculated around Ti~=~35~keV for the source potential V~=~$-$150~kV. In addition, the ion distribution indicates that 68~{\%} of ions can be collected in the central region. According to the velocity distribution, there exists a double Gaussian distribution with a low velocity peak. In addition, nearly 61~{\%} of ions stay in the energy scale between 2~keV~$\leq$~E~$\leq$~39~keV. The averaged neutron rate is estimated as 5.96~$\times$~105~n/s. {\copyright} 2015, Springer Science+Business Media New York.},
 author = {Kurt, Erol and Dursun, B.},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Particle Trajectories and Energy Distribution from a New IEC Fusion Device: A Many-Body Approach},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84945534985&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-015-0033-2&partnerID=40&md5=81f0985a6ca64a605676ff64462a2d0b},
 keywords = {Azimuthal magnetic fields;Electric grounding;Electromagnetic field effects;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Energy distribution;Energy distributions;Finite difference method;Fusion reactors;Grounded chamber wall;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ions;Magnetic bubbles;Magnetic field;Magnetic fields;Many body;Many-body;Particle trajectories;Real time simulations},
 pages = {483--492},
 volume = {35},
 number = {3},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-015-0033-2}
}


@phdthesis{Kusaba.1999,
 author = {Kusaba, R.},
 year = {1999},
 title = {Numerical Analysis of an Cylindrical Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device (in Japanese)},
 school = {{Kyoto University}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Kuznetsov.2010,
 abstract = {A model of forming deuteron fluxes and neutron generation in an axial plasma diode with two external anodes and a transparent internal hollow cathode is suggested. Such configuration provides longitudinal deuteron oscillations (inertial confinement) and required frequency of collisions with slow deuterons in the cathode plasma. On the basis of the suggested model of neutron generation, the neutron flux generated in the course of D(d, n)3He nuclear reactions is approximately calculated. The examined diode system seems to be promising for the development of compact controllable neutron sources with increased operation lifetime and transverse size no more than 5 cm. {\copyright} 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.},
 author = {Kuznetsov, A. Y. and Tsybin, A. S. and Shikanov, A. E.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Model of forming deuteron fluxes and neutron generation in an axial plasma diode with inertial ion confinement},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77957105585&doi=10.1007%2fs11182-010-9432-z&partnerID=40&md5=70410c37606899d0a8edd219ad52eb11},
 keywords = {compact neutron sources;deuterons;Discharge plasma;discharge with a hollow cathode;geophysics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutrons},
 pages = {381--388},
 volume = {53},
 number = {4},
 issn = {10648887},
 journal = {Russian Physics Journal},
 doi = {10.1007/s11182-010-9432-z}
}


@article{Lang.2018,
 abstract = {We characterize the neutron output of a deuterium--deuterium plasma fusion neutron generator, model 35-DD-W-S, manufactured by NSD/Gradel-Fusion. The measured energy spectrum is found to be dominated by neutron peaks at 2.2 MeV and 2.7 MeV. A detailed GEANT4 simulation accurately reproduces the measured energy spectrum and confirms our understanding of the fusion process in this generator. Additionally, a contribution of 14.1MeV neutrons from deuterium--tritium fusion is found at a level of 3.5{\%}, from tritium produced in previous deuterium--deuterium reactions. We have measured both the absolute neutron flux as well as its relative variation on the operational parameters of the generator. We find the flux to be proportional to voltage V3.32$\pm$0.14 and current I0.97$\pm$0.01. Further, we have measured the angular dependence of the neutron emission with respect to the polar angle. We conclude that it is well described by isotropic production of neutrons within the cathode field cage. {\copyright} 2017 Elsevier B.V.},
 author = {Lang, R. F. and Pienaar, J. and Hogenbirk, E. and Masson, D. and Nolte, R. and Zimbal, A. and R{\"o}ttger, S. and Benabderrahmane, M. L. and Bruno, G.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Characterization of a deuterium--deuterium plasma fusion neutron generator},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85032342074&doi=10.1016%2fj.nima.2017.10.001&partnerID=40&md5=dea6e7503c60561a163aa0a906563915},
 keywords = {Angular dependence;Deuterium;Deuterium fusion;Deuterium plasma;Deuterium--deuterium fusion;Energy spectra;GEANT4 simulation;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron beams;Neutron generator;Neutron generators;Neutron sources;Operational parameters;Spectroscopy;Tritium},
 pages = {31--38},
 volume = {879},
 issn = {01689002},
 journal = {Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment},
 doi = {10.1016/j.nima.2017.10.001}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1962,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A.},
 year = {1962},
 pages = {440--445},
 volume = {8},
 journal = {Ukrainskii Fizicheskii Zhurnal}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1963,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A. and Ovcharenko, L. and Safronov, B. and Sidorkin, V. and Nemashkalo, B.},
 year = {1963},
 title = {Jenergiya i plotnost'ionov v jelektromagnitnoj lovushke/Energy and density of ions in an electromagnetic trap},
 pages = {440--445},
 volume = {8},
 journal = {Ukrainskii Fizicheskii Zhurnal}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1963b,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A.},
 year = {1963},
 title = {Plasma Diagnostics: 233},
 journal = {Gosatomizdat}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1966,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A.},
 year = {1966},
 pages = {982--990},
 volume = {11},
 journal = {Urkainskii Fizicheskii Zhurnal}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1968,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A.},
 year = {1968},
 title = {Investigation of an electromagnetic trap Magnitnye Louurhki Vypusk 3}
}


@misc{Lavrentev.1970,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A.},
 date = {1970},
 title = {Investigation of an Electromagnetic Trap},
 number = {AECTR-7002 (Rev)}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1972,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A. and Sidorkin, V. and Zaitsev, B. V. and Azovskii, Yu S.},
 year = {1972},
 volume = {42},
 number = {143-146},
 journal = {Ukrainskii Fizicheskii Zhurnal}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1972b,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A. and Sidorkin, V. and Zaitsev, B. V. and Azovskii, Yu S.},
 year = {1972},
 volume = {46},
 number = {1282-4},
 journal = {Ukrainskii Fizicheskii Zhurnal}
}


@inproceedings{Lavrentev.1973,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A. and Sidorkin, V. and Zaitsev, B. V. and Sappa, N. N.},
 title = {Investigation of gas discharge in a spherical diode},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 11 International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases},
 year = {1973}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1975,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {ELECTROSTATIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC HIGH-TEMPERATURE PLASMA TRAPS*},
 pages = {152--178},
 volume = {251},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
 doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00089.x}
}


@article{Lavrentev.1976,
 author = {Lavrent'ev, O. A. and Sidorkin, V. and Zaitsev, B. V. and Azovskii, Yu S.},
 year = {1976},
 pages = {1282--1284},
 volume = {46},
 journal = {Zhurnal Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki}
}


@patent{LIJINHAI.20220425,
 author = {JINHAI, LI and DAN, LIU},
 year = {2022/04/25},
 title = {INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT FUSION FACILITY HAVING INNER ION SOURCE},
 url = {https://lens.org/062-312-470-926-185},
 number = {US 2022/0254520 A1}
}


@patent{LONGMIERBENJAMIN.20160901,
 author = {{LONGMIER BENJAMIN}},
 year = {2016/09/01},
 title = {HALL EFFECT ASSISTED ELECTRON CONFINEMENT IN AN INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT FUSION REACTOR},
 url = {https://lens.org/112-063-735-231-301},
 number = {US 2017/0069399 A1}
}


@inproceedings{Lopez.2013,
 abstract = {In its basic form, IEC (Inertial Electrostatic Confinement) fusion is a method wherein plasma confinement is achieved by electrostatic attraction and the ion collisions as a result of this attraction creates fusion. It is comparatively less expensive than other techniques such as Tokomaks, Laser ICF (Inertial Confinement Fusion) or Stellarators, but similar to these other devices it has not been able to achieve break even. One of the majors objections by the scientific community is thermalization wherein high energy ions lose their energy and focus when colliding with lower energy ions or electrons; and high energy ions escaping containment both causing energy loss at a rate faster than fusion energy gain. The other objection is the loss of ion focus into the center core, any lateral vector caused by ion to electron electrostatic attraction would result in the single intersection point in the center of the core to be lost. There have been numerous attempts at improving the rate of fusion from the original concepts of Farnsworth and Hirsh and there have been incremental improvements. One of them is the Periodically Oscillating Plasma Sphere (POPS) concept that uses electrostatic fluctuating distributed grids as a means of equilibrium distribution of ions at all times but the presence of the grid sacrifices transparency wherein ions must avoid grid components [1]. This current research proposes the next steps on the improvement of IEC devices that attempts to address these major concerns. It relies on the interaction of electromagnetic waves with ions within an IEC device to induce spin polarized fusion [2]. {\copyright} 2013 IEEE.},
 author = {Lopez, J.E.R.},
 title = {A method of increasing the rate of nuclear fusion inside an IEC device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84890449366&doi=10.1109%2fSOFE.2013.6635509&partnerID=40&md5=ca7a7b6665b98e6313df309d3c9747bf},
 keywords = {Electromagnetic waves;Electrostatic attractions;Electrostatics;Energy dissipation;Equilibrium distributions;High-energy ions;Incremental improvements;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ions;Periodically oscillating plasma sphere;Plasma confinement;Scientific community;Single intersections},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 25th Symposium on Fusion Engineering, SOFE 2013},
 year = {2013},
 doi = {10.1109/SOFE.2013.6635509}
}


@patent{LOPEZJOSEE.20100504,
 author = {{LOPEZ JOSE E}},
 year = {2010/05/04},
 title = {NUCLEAR FUSION USING ELECTROSTATIC CAGE AND ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELD},
 url = {https://lens.org/169-861-937-297-899},
 number = {US 2011/0274228 A1}
}


@inproceedings{Lovberg.1991,
 author = {Lovberg, J. and Maffei, K. and Jacobsen, R.},
 title = {SCIF Diagnostics Suite},
 pages = {2318},
 volume = {36},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1991}
}


@article{MacLeod.2010,
 abstract = {Most present-day research into Nuclear Fusion concentrates on high-temperature plasmas combined with Inertial or Magnetic Confinement. However, there exists another body of less well-known work based on Electrostatic Acceleration and Confinement. The most thoroughly researched of these devices is known as the Farnsworth Fusor. This paper reviews the technique and then argues that, with development, similar technologies would be particularly suited to space-borne applications, due to their safety, simplicity and light weight. The paper then goes on to suggest several possible directions for new research into such devices which might result in a working machine.},
 author = {MacLeod, C. and Gow, K. S.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {A reconsideration of electrostatically accelerated and confined nuclear fusion for space applications},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84856535601&partnerID=40&md5=8cd8026bb282a711114fa939ce50c25e},
 keywords = {Electromagnetic activation;Electrostatic acceleration;Fuseotron;Fusors;Inertial electrostatic confinement;nuclear fusion;Power;Propulsion;Scram},
 pages = {192--205},
 volume = {63},
 number = {5-6},
 issn = {0007084X},
 journal = {JBIS - Journal of the British Interplanetary Society},
 doi = {10.1126/science.1125907;}
}


@article{MacLeod.2011,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) is an approach to nuclear fusion which utilises the properties of electrostatically accelerated ion-beams instead of hot plasmas. The best known device which uses the principle is the Farnsworth-Hirsch fusor. It has been argued that such devices have some potential advantages in spaceflight and in-particular as power-supplies for trans-atmospheric propulsion. This paper builds on previous work in the field and focuses on how the fixing of the fuel for such reactors in a solid, liquid or encapsulated form may provide a high enough energy-density to make such devices practical power sources. Several methods of fixing the fuel are discussed; theoretical calculations are presented and applicable literature is reviewed. Finally, there is a discussion of practical issues and feasibility, together with suggestions for further work.},
 author = {MacLeod, C. and Capanni, N. F. and Gow, K. S.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Fuel encapsulation for Inertial Electrostatic Confinement nuclear fusion reactors},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84856591777&partnerID=40&md5=b8a48a55f57bd43156fba4e7e72b6b11},
 keywords = {Fuseotron;Fusors;Inertial electrostatic confinement;nuclear fusion;Power;Propulsion},
 pages = {139--149},
 volume = {64},
 number = {5},
 issn = {0007084X},
 journal = {JBIS - Journal of the British Interplanetary Society},
 doi = {10.1023/A:1014581100123;}
}


@inproceedings{Maegawa.2011,
 abstract = {With a cylindrical discharge type fusion device that generates fast neutron design of various combinations of reflectors, moderators and shield materials were studied for, the neutron beam with desired energy spectrum. Optimized reflector design and comparison of their materials are discussed by both experimental and numerical studies.},
 author = {Maegawa, T. and Noborio, Kazuyuki and Konishi, S. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Generation of Neutron Beam with the Cylindrical Discharge Type Fusion Device},
 keywords = {cylindrical discharge type fusion;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;MCNP;neutron beam;Neutron generator},
 booktitle = {2011 IEEE/NPSS 24th Symposium on Fusion Engineering, SOFE 2011},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.1109/SOFE.2011.6052295}
}


@inproceedings{Maffei.1990,
 author = {Maffei, K. and Lovberg, J. and Jacobsen, R.},
 title = {Operating Parameters for the DTI/SCIF Device},
 pages = {2138},
 volume = {35},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1990}
}


@inproceedings{Maffei.1991,
 author = {Maffei, K. and Lovberg, J. and Jacobsen, R.},
 title = {Initial Operation of the Directed Technologies SCIF Device},
 pages = {2318},
 volume = {36},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1991}
}


@article{Marocchino.2006,
 abstract = {Theoretical works by Barnes and Nebel [D. C. Barnes and R. A. Nebel, Phys. Plasmas 5, 2498 (1998); R. A. Nebel and D. C. Barnes, Fusion Technol. 38, 28 (1998)] have suggested that a tiny oscillating ion cloud (referred to as the periodically oscillating plasma sphere or POPS) may undergo a self-similar collapse in a harmonic oscillator potential formed by a uniform electron background. A major uncertainty in this oscillating plasma scheme is the stability of the virtual cathode that forms the harmonic oscillator potential. The electron-electron two-stream stability of the virtual cathode has previously been studied with a fluid model, a slab kinetic model, a spherically symmetric kinetic model, and experimentally [R. A. Nebel and J. M. Finn, Phys. Plasmas 8, 1505 (2001); R. A. Nebel, Phys. Plasmas 12, 040501 (2005)]. Here the mode is studied with a two-dimensional particle-in-cell code. Results indicate stability limits near those of the previously spherically symmetric case. {\copyright} 2006 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Marocchino, A. and Lapenta, G. and Evstatiev, E. G. and Nebel, Richard A. and Park, J.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Two-dimensional electron-electron two-stream instability of an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-33750497313&doi=10.1063%2f1.2356848&partnerID=40&md5=40d8c348a0e634d01d70cbda473702e2},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electrons;Fluid mechanics;Harmonic oscillator potential;Mathematical models;Oscillating ion cloud;Periodically oscillating plasma sphere (POPS);Plasma confinement;Plasma devices;Slab kinetic model},
 volume = {13},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2356848}
}


@article{Masuda.1998,
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Ohnishi, Masami and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Toku, Hisayuki and Sobajima, Masaaki and Kitagaki, Jiro},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Development of an improved two-dimensional finite-element code for cylindrically symmetric eigenmodes},
 keywords = {Cavity eigenmode;Finite-element method},
 pages = {1180--1182},
 volume = {46},
 number = {8},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques},
 doi = {10.1109/22.704965}
}


@article{Masuda.2001,
 abstract = {Performance characteristics of an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion triple-grid system are experimentally studied to provide an ample fusion reaction rate under a lower-gas-pressure region to make the operation free from glow discharge restrictions between the discharge voltage, current, and gas pressure. With a filament to provide sufficient electrons, the operating gas pressure is found to reduce down to 1/5 for the same discharge current and voltage. Although the gas pressure region that was achieved still remains the region where the fusion reaction between the ion beam and background gas is dominant, the neutron yield normalized by the gas pressure in the triple-grid system shows higher value than the conventional single-grid system.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Taruya, Kenji and Koyama, T. and Hashimoto, H. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Toku, Hisayuki and Yamamoto, Y. and Ohnishi, M. and Horiike, Hiroshi and Inoue, Nobuyuki},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Performance characteristics of an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device with a triple-grid system},
 keywords = {Electric potential;Electrons;Electrostatics;Gases;glow discharge;Glow discharges;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) devices;ion beams;Neutrons;Pressure effects;Triple-grid system},
 pages = {1202--1210},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A174}
}


@article{Masuda.2001b,
 abstract = {Simultaneous measurements of neutrons and protons were carried out to identify D-D fusion reactions in an Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device, which is theoretically expected to produce D-D protons and neutrons in a dense plasma core at the center. Experimental results showed an excellent agreement of a measured proton energy with the predicted one, and a strong linear correlation between neutron and proton yields, both indicating conclusively D-D fusion reactions in the IECF device. It is also found, through comparison between neutron and collimated proton yields, that more than 98 {\%} of the fusion reactions take place outside the central core region under the present experimental conditions.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Horiike, Hiroshi and Taruya, Kenji and Koyama, T. and Hashimoto, H. and Yamamoto, Y. and Inoue, Nobuyuki and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Ohnishi, M.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Identification of D-D fusion reaction by simultaneous neutron and proton measurements in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-6644220369&doi=10.13182%2ffst01-a11963296&partnerID=40&md5=f539a0064bd1497b8baee6534f77ed02},
 keywords = {Correlation methods;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Protons},
 pages = {562--566},
 volume = {39},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst01-a11963296}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2002,
 abstract = {Energy distributions of energetic neutral atoms resulted from charge-exchange reactions between accelerated ions and background atoms or molecules were measured by the Doppler shift spectroscopy in an inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device composed of a spherical vacuum chamber as an anode and a spherical hollow cathode grid concentrically placed in the chamber. Since ions generated between the cathode and the anode by a glow discharge are accelerated toward the spherical center by the electric field, and enter the hollow cathode to give rise to either beam-beam or beam-background colliding fusion, the energy distribution of such ions virtually determines fusion reaetion rate to great extent. The optical emissions from the center were measured in both hydrogen and helium IEC plasmas. The energy distributions in the radial direction were then evaluated from the broadening of the emissions, under an assumption of spherical symmetry. As a result, in both hydrogen and helium plasmas the maximum ion energies measured were found lo be approximately 80 {\%} of the applied voltage lo the cathode. In a hydrogen plasma, three energy peaks are found in the energy spectrum of fast neutrals, indicating almost the same birthplace of H:, Illt, and tl; ions at approximately 80 {\%} energy of the applied voltage. In contrast, in a helium plasma, the energy peak was found to be much less down to 20{\%} ofthe applied voltage.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Mizutani, Toshiyuki and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Takiyama, Ken and Toku, Hisayuki and Hashimoto, Hirofumi and Nagafuchi, Akihiro},
 title = {Measurement of the energy distribution of fast excited atoms by Doppler shift spectroscopy in an inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1027730/},
 pages = {434--437},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 19th IEEE/IPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. 19th SOFE},
 year = {2002},
 address = {Atlantic City, NJ, USA},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2002.1027730}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2003,
 abstract = {A magnetron discharge as a built-in ion source for an inertial- electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device was experimentally studied aiming at a drastic improvement of fusion reaction rate. With this discharge in the vicinity of the grounded vacuum chamber, produced ions are expected to have almost full energy corresponding to the voltage applied to the central transparent cathode. Also, the magnetron-glow hybrid discharge is found to be effective to make the operation free from glow discharge restriction among the discharge voltage, current and gas pressure. As a consequence, the neutron yield normalized by the gas pressure shows higher value than the conventional glow-discharge-based IECF, although the gas pressure we achieved is found to remain still the region where the fusion reaction between the ion beam and background gas is dominant. {\copyright} 2003 IEEE.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Mizutani, Toshiyuki and Takamatsu, T. and Imoto, M. and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Toku, Hisayuki},
 title = {Performance characteristics of an inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion device with magnetron discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-27644459867&partnerID=40&md5=ed888626a222a1f32ee6edf360c4d638},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Charged particles;Discharge voltage;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Gas pressure;Glow discharges;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Magnetron discharge;Magnetrons;Pressure effects;Vacuum applications},
 urldate = {14 October 2003 through 17 October 2003},
 pages = {628--631},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 20th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering, 2003},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2003.1426725}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2005,
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Ando, Takanori and Nishi, Tetsuya and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Development of a Low-Energetic Metastable Helium Beam Injector for Electric Field Diagnostics by Laser-Induced Fluorescence Method in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Plasmas},
 url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4019002/},
 keywords = {atomic beam;-component;Discharge;Electric field measurement;excitation;inertial electrostatic confinementfusion;Laser-induced fluorescence;metastable helium;supersonic gas jet},
 pages = {1--4},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st IEEE/NPS Symposium on Fusion Engineering SOFE 05},
 year = {2005},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2005.252968}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2005b,
 abstract = {We have investigated the use of triode structure in a thermionic rf gun in order to minimize the inherent back-bombardment of electrons onto the cathode. By using an rf powered extractor grid in the triode structure, the electric fields in the vicinity of the cathode surface can be controlled independent from the phase of rf field in the main accelerating cells. Significant reduction of back-bombardment power up to 99{\%} is shown with rf input powers of {\~{}}40 kW to the extractor grid, using a two-dimensional particle simulation code. Also, preliminary refinement of the triode configuration has shown reasonably acceptable emittance degradation at the first cell exit in a 4.5-cell structure and a rather higher peak current than the conventional rf gun.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Kusukame, Koichi and Kii, Toshiteru and Ohgaki, Hideaki and Zen, Heishun and Fukui, Toshio and Nakai, Yoko and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Yamazaki, Tetsuo},
 title = {Particle simulations of a thermionic RF gun with gridded triode structure for reduction of back-bombardment},
 pages = {588--591},
 booktitle = {27th International Conference on Free Electron Lasers},
 year = {2005}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2005c,
 abstract = {An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device can produce copious amount of neutrons and protons from D-D and D-He-3 fusion reactions using D-2 and He-3 fuels. The 14.7 MeV protons from D-He-3 reactions are highly energetic and are expected to be utilized to produce radioisotopes for medical use, for example, Positron Emission Tomography (PET). In order to measure the reaction rate of D-3He, a proton counting system is constructed using a semiconductor diode detector. When used with a metallic foil and a electron deflection magnet, the present proton counting system provides a good signal/noise ratio for 14.7 MeV protons even in the presence of high energy electron beams, hard X-rays, and metallic ions from sputtering. The 14.7 MeV proton production rate has been measured as a function of D-2-He-3 fuel composition and the discharge bias voltage, which agree well with the theoretical predictions.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Ogawa, Satoshi and Takamatsu, Teruhisa and Toku, Hisayuki and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Simultaneous neutron and proton measurements of D-D and D-He-3 fusion reaction in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 keywords = {Component;D-He-3 fusion  reaction;Inertial electrostatic confinment fusio;Proton source;Solid-state detector},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st IEEE/NPS Symposium on Fusion Engineering SOFE 05},
 year = {2005},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2005.252870}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2006,
 abstract = {An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device can produce copious amount of neutrons and protons from D-D and D-3He fusion reactions using D2 and 3He fuels. In order to measure the reaction rate of D-3He, a proton counting system is constructed using a silicon diode detector. When used with a metallic foil and an electron deflection magnet, the present proton counting system provides a good signal/noise ratio for 14.7 MeV protons even in the presence of high energy electron beams, hard X-rays. Meanwhile unaccountable signals at $\sim$8 MeV, which is different from the signals of D-D or D-3He protons have been observed, whose origin has eventually revealed by spatial distribution determination by use of movable collimator masks installed in front of the detector. The production rates of the 14.7 MeV protons from D-3He and neutrons from D-D fusion reactions have been measured as functions of D 2-3He fuel composition and the discharge bias voltage, which agree well with the theoretical predictions. {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Ogawa, S. and Takamatsu, T. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Simultaneous measurements of neutrons and energetic protons from D-D and D-3He fusion reactions in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-47349097601&doi=10.1109%2fDEIV.2006.357379&partnerID=40&md5=dee4b2a9e5e48e51295f2a410585371b},
 keywords = {Atoms;Discharge (fluid mechanics);Electrical insulation;Energetic protons;Fluid mechanics;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) devices;International symposium;In-vacuum;Neutrons;Protons;Simultaneous measurements;Vacuum},
 urldate = {25 September 2006 through 29 September 2006},
 pages = {624--627},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the XXIInd International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/DEIV.2006.357379}
}


@book{Masuda.2006b,
 abstract = {Current results are described on the R{\&}D of an anti-personnel landmine detection system by using a discharge-type fusion neutron source. Landmines are to be identified through neutron-captured \textgreek{g}-rays of specific energies by hydrogen and nitrogen atoms in the explosives. Improvements in the neutron source have been made to achieve a dc neutron production rate of 4$\times$10 6 sec-1 by a compact device of 200 mm diameter. Also a BGO/NaI(TI) combined scintillation detector has been developed for a well collimated \textgreek{g}-ray detection with an enhanced signal to noise ratio. The results by using an imitator suggest promising and practical features for landmine detection. {\copyright} 2006 Springer.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Detection and Disposal of Improvised Explosives},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-34848813213&doi=10.1007%2f978-1-4020-4887-6_15&partnerID=40&md5=7c23e2d42afebc3934033d71fc1410df},
 keywords = {D-D fusion neutron source;Explosives detection;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion;Neutron capture reaction;\textgreek{g}-ray detector},
 publisher = {{Springer Dordrecht}},
 isbn = {18714668},
 series = {Nato Security through Science Series B:},
 editor = {Schubert, Hiltmar and Kuznetsov, Andrey},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-4020-4887-6}
}


@incollection{Masuda.2006c,
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Yamamoto, Y. and Takamatsu, T. and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Hotta, Eiki and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H.},
 title = {Research and development on humanitarian landmine detection system by a compact discharge-type D-D fusion neutron source},
 pages = {143--152},
 publisher = {{Springer Dordrecht}},
 isbn = {18714668},
 series = {Nato Security through Science Series B:},
 editor = {Schubert, Hiltmar and Kuznetsov, Andrey},
 booktitle = {Detection and Disposal of Improvised Explosives},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-4020-4887-6{\textunderscore }15}
}


@article{Masuda.2007,
 abstract = {A two-dimensional numerical code has been developed for simulating dc discharges in inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion devices. Unlike the existing IEC codes, the developed code is not based on Monte Carlo scheme by the use of random number nor time-domain particle-in-cell (PIC) method, aiming at a drastic reduction of computational efforts. It is based on a time-independent scheme, i.e. iterative calculations of particle-tracking and induced self-field, leading to a much faster convergence than the time-domain PIC scheme on steady-state self-consistent solutions. Also, a new scheme for atomic process treatment is proposed, which is completely free from the inherent difficulty of Monte Carlo method, i.e. requiring many particles for simulating rare events. Preliminary numerical result from the this code showed agreement with experimental helium discharge characteristics in an IEC device.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Development of a time-independent particle-in-cell code for simulating DC discharges in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Electric discharges;Inertial confinement fusion;Iterative methods;Monte Carlo methods;Particle-in-cell code;Self-consistent solutions;Time domain analysis;Time-independent scheme},
 pages = {1119--1123},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1648}
}


@incollection{Masuda.2008,
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Shiroya, Seiji and Hotta, Eiki and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H.},
 title = {Directional detection of nitrogen and hydrogen in explosives by use of a DD-fusion-driven thermal neutron source},
 pages = {155--166},
 publisher = {{Springer Dordrecht}},
 isbn = {978-1-4020-8464-5},
 editor = {Schubert, Hiltmar and Kuznetsov, Andrey},
 booktitle = {Detection of Liquid Explosives and Flammable Agents in Connection with Terrorism},
 year = {2008},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-4020-8466-9{\textunderscore }15}
}


@article{Masuda.2009,
 abstract = {A diagnostic method for spatial distributions of D-D and D-3He fusion reactions has been developed. Refinement of collimation geometry and choice of a detector and a shielding foil resulted in a drastic improvement of signal separation from noise in collimated proton counting. The developed method was then applied and revealed proton yield distributions in an inertial-electrostatic confinement device running with a D2-3He mixture fuel gas. The result showed localized D2-3He reactions on cathode gird surfaces. It also indicated considerable fractions of D-D 3He reactions on anode grid and chamber wall surfaces as well as the cathode grid.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Fujimoto, T. and Nakagawa, Tomoya and Zen, Heishun and Kajiwara, T. and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Diagnostic system development for D-D and D-3He reaction distributions in an inertial-electrostatic confinement device by collimated proton measurements},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-68949113859&doi=10.13182%2fFST09-A8957&partnerID=40&md5=7d091830aab62d9f422a416e52075dc5},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Chamber walls;Diagnostic methods;Diagnostic system development;Electrodes;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Reaction distribution;Signal separation;Surface reactions},
 pages = {528--532},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-A8957}
}


@article{Masuda.2009b,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device driven by a ring-shaped built-in ion source is proposed and designed aiming at a reduced operating gas pressure in order to explore a possibility of a drastic enhancement in the fusion reaction rate in the envisaged beam-beam collision regime. In the present scheme ions will be extracted from a ring-shaped magnetron discharge plasma toward an IEC cathode grid placed concentrically at the center. A prototype ion source showed an accessible pressure of 5 mPa, which is hundreds times as low as the conventional glow-discharge-driven IEC. Dependence of the ion source current and extraction efficiency on the central IEC cathode voltage was studied by prototype experiments and numerical calculations. An IEC device with a built-in ion source was then designed based on these results. The expected IEC grid current is ̃0.4 mA at 5 mPa, where observation of the beam-beam fusion contribution is anticipated.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Nakagawa, Tomoya and Kajiwara, T. and Zen, Heishun and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Built-in ion source for inertial electrostatic confinement in low pressure regime},
 keywords = {Built-in ion sources;Cathodes;Collision regimes;Electrodes;Electrostatics;Extraction efficiencies;Fusion reactions;Glow discharges;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion sources;Magnetron discharges;Magnetrons;Numerical calculation;Prototype experiment},
 pages = {523--527},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-A8956}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2009c,
 abstract = {Recent progress is described in the research and development of an inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device. Use of a water-cooling jacket with non-uniform thickness shows promising success for landmine detection application, such as effective channeling of neutron flux toward the target and a very stable dc yield in excess of 107 D-D neutrons/sec. Addition of an ion source to the conventional glow-discharge-driven IECF enhances the converging deuterium ion energy distribution by allowing a lower operating gas pressure. Improvement in normalized neutron yield, which corresponds to the fusion cross-section averaged over the device radius, by a factor of ten has been observed. {\copyright} 2009 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, T. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Shiroya, Seiji and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Fujimoto, T. and Nakagawa, Tomoya and Kajiwara, T. and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 title = {Research and development of compact neutron sources based on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-65349187015&doi=10.1063%2f1.3120105&partnerID=40&md5=5de2054485bb6588ecd63d617cdacebe},
 keywords = {Doppler shift spectroscopy;glow discharge;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion;Ion source;Magnetron discharge;neutron source},
 urldate = {10 August 2008 through 15 August 2008},
 pages = {587--590},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3120105}
}


@article{Masuda.2010,
 abstract = {We presentD(d, n)3He reaction rates for a newinertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device which aims to overcome neutralization (charge exchange) of accelerating ions by operating at D2 gas pressures of just 5-10mPa with the aid of an internal ring-shaped magnetron ion source. Initial experiments with a voltage of -60 kV applied to a central spherical cathode grid yield neutron production rates (NPR) proportional to I 1.7 for cathode grid current in the range I = 0.1 - 1 mA. This approaches the ideal $\propto$ I 2 dependence for a system dominated by energetically preferred, 'beam-beam' reactions between converging nuclei. However, later measurements show NPR $\propto$ I and also indicate changes in the pressure dependence. In fact the I 1.7 dependence was recovered by increasing the cathode grid voltage to -80 kV, though this too was only temporary. We suggest that time variation of NPR may be partially explained by a significant contribution of beam-grid reactions and temperaturedependent deuteron absorption by the grid cathode. {\copyright} 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Nakagawa, Tomoya and Kipritidis, John and Kajiwara, T. and Yamagaki, Yu and Zen, Heishun and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Cathode grid current dependence of D(d, n)3He reaction rates in an inertial electrostatic confinement device driven by a ring-shaped magnetron ion source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78149337890&doi=10.1088%2f0741-3335%2f52%2f9%2f095010&partnerID=40&md5=43d68f69d9d71414d9831797a99300b9},
 volume = {52},
 number = {9},
 issn = {07413335},
 journal = {Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0741-3335/52/9/095010}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2010b,
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Kajiwara, Taiju and Kipritidis, John and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Yamagaki, Yu},
 title = {Development of a nuclear material detection system based on the neutron gamma-ray hybrid approach},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2010f.0.50.0}
}


@article{Masuda.2011,
 abstract = {Design of a multistage feedthrough is presented, which aims to enhance fusion reaction rate in a lowpressure spherical inertial electrostatic confinement device. Numerical simulation suggested significant improvement in ion recirculation current by a factor of$\sim$3, by modifying spherical symmetry of electric field.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Yamagaki, Yu and Kajiwara, T. and Kipritidis, John},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Numerical study of ion recirculation in an improved spherical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion scheme by use of a multistage high voltage feedthrough},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84867588632&doi=10.13182%2fFST11-A12453&partnerID=40&md5=9afff94a627a02584cf2bc92ccd963dd},
 keywords = {Electric fields;Electrostatics;Feed through;Fusion reactions;High voltage;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Recirculations;Spheres;Spherical symmetry},
 pages = {625--629},
 volume = {60},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST11-A12453}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2011b,
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Kajiwara, Taiju and Yamagaki, Yu and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Ohgaki, Hideaki},
 title = {Non-Destructive Inspection System for Hidden Special Nuclear Materials: Development of a discharge-driven D-D fusion neutron source},
 publisher = {J-STAGE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2011s.0.38.0}
}


@inproceedings{Masuda.2011c,
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Kajiwara, Taiju and Yamagaki, Yu and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Ohgaki, Hideaki},
 title = {Non-Destructive Inspection System for Hidden Special Nuclear Materials (II): Development of a discharge-driven D-D fusion neutron generator},
 publisher = {J-STAGE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2011f.0.37.0}
}


@article{Masuda.2017,
 author = {Masuda, Kai},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Nuclear Fusion Based Neutron Sources},
 pages = {113--116},
 volume = {27},
 number = {3},
 journal = {hamon},
 doi = {10.5611/hamon.27.3{\textunderscore }113}
}


@article{Masuda.2019,
 abstract = {This paper proposes a Langmuir probe--based diagnostics for plasma parameters inside gridded cathodes at high bias potentials in inertial electrostatic confinement devices. As the first step for the proof of concept, floating potential profiles were measured in deuterium and helium plasmas in a glow-discharge mode. The measurements with fusion-relevant cathode voltages up to 55~kV were carried out successfully. The results revealed that the positive potential buildup at the center ranges from 5{\%} to 8{\%} of the applied bias voltage to the gridded cathode, which is found to be much smaller than those in earlier works under cathode voltages lower than 5~kV. It was also shown that the floating potential profile is different significantly between deuterium and helium discharge plasmas. {\copyright} 2019, {\copyright} 2019 American Nuclear Society.},
 author = {Masuda, Kai and Kashima, R. and Bakr, Mahmoud A.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Potential Profile Measurements Inside a Gridded Cathode at High Potential in a Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85066799653&doi=10.1080%2f15361055.2019.1610292&partnerID=40&md5=9f1f82721501a13c3ec0dc415c623d51},
 keywords = {Applied bias voltage;Bias voltage;Cathode voltages;Cathodes;Deuterium;Electrostatic devices;Floating potentials;Glow discharges;helium;Helium discharge;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Langmuir probe;Langmuir probes;Positive potential;Potential profiles;virtual anode},
 pages = {608--613},
 volume = {75},
 number = {7},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2019.1610292}
}


@inproceedings{Matej.2020,
 abstract = {This article focuses on description of two different neutron fields from linear and cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) neutron generators. Both of these generators are well defined and commonly used. They use a deuterium-tritium reaction that produces neutrons with energies in the range 13 - 16 MeV, depending on the direction and the energy of the incoming deuterium nucleus. Two-parametric spectrometric system for neutron/gamma mixed fields NGA-01 was used to characterize neutron spectra in the proximity of generators. The cylindrical 45x45 mm stilbene scintillator was connected to this device using an active voltage divider. This way, we were able to measure neutron energies in the range 1 - 15 MeV while filtering out gamma radiation, even when counts per second is high. For the neutron spectrum calculation recoil spectra using deconvolution through maximum likelihood estimation was used. Measured neutron spectra have been compared with simulations realized via MCNP6. According to the theoretical prediction, these two types of generators produce different neutron fields. In case of the linear generator the target is very close to point located tritium bombarded by deuterons. Thus the neutron spectrum varies depending on the angle between the detector axis and the axis of the generator. Both experimental results and simulation show a shift of the neutron energy peak in pulse height histogram. For IEC type generators the neutron spectrum is more complicated. The shape and the position of the neutron energy peak depend heavily on the position of the detector. The most prominent effect is in the position in the plane perpendicular to the generator axis. In this case, the peak splits into two peaks that can be measured and distinguished. These results were verified by the diamond detector which was also used for characterization of the IEC type generator. {\copyright} The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).},
 author = {Matej, Z. and Kostal, M. and Novak, E. and Alexa, P. and Uhlar, R. and Mravec, F. and Jancar, A. and Cvachovec, F. and Prenosil, V. and Jancar, P.},
 title = {Characterization and comparsion of neutron generators of IEC and linear D-T by the spectrometric system NGA-01},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85108423654&doi=10.1051%2fepjconf%2f202124718004&partnerID=40&md5=803dbc84f52905e0ed04143758854b14},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Deuterium-tritium;Diamond detectors;Electric generators;IEC neutron generator;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Linear generators;Linear neutron generator;Maximum likelihood estimation;Neutron beams;Neutron energy;Neutron fields;Neutron generators;Neutron sources;Neutron spectra;Neutron spectrometers;Neutrons;Spectrometry;Tritium;Voltage dividers},
 urldate = {28 March 2020 through 2 April 2020},
 pages = {2786--2793},
 booktitle = {2020 International Conference on Physics of Reactors: Transition to a Scalable Nuclear Future, PHYSOR 2020},
 year = {2020},
 doi = {10.1051/epjconf/202124718004}
}


@inproceedings{Matsuda.2021,
 author = {Matsuda, Kazuhiro and Hasegawa, Jun},
 title = {One-dimensional PIC-MCC analysis of inertial electrostatic confinement plasma},
 volume = {NIFS-PROC-121},
 booktitle = {Symposium on {\textquotedbl}Frontier of Advanced Pulsed Power Technology and its Application to Plasma and Particle Beam{\textquotedbl}},
 year = {2021}
}


@article{Matsuura.2000,
 abstract = {The radial profile of the neutron production rate in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas is investigated. The electrostatic potential is obtained by solving the Poisson equation, and by using the potential; the fuel ion velocity distribution function is determined at each radial point. From the velocity distribution function, the neutron production rate is accurately evaluated. Numerical results show that if it is assumed that fuel ions are confined keeping the total energy and angular momentum almost constant, the double radial peak in the neutron production rate can appear without creation of the deep double potential well.},
 author = {Matsuura, Hideaki and Takaki, T. and Funakoshi, K. and Nakao, Y. and Kudo, K.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Ion distribution function and radial profile of neutron production rate in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0034497297&doi=10.1088%2f0029-5515%2f40%2f12%2f101&partnerID=40&md5=353643173dbc6be4d223dec7629a5185},
 keywords = {Electric potential;Electrostatics;Functions;Inertial confinement fusion;Ion distribution functions;Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Poisson distribution;Spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (SIEC);Velocity measurement},
 pages = {1951--1954},
 volume = {40},
 number = {12},
 issn = {00295515},
 journal = {Nuclear Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0029-5515/40/12/101}
}


@article{Matsuura.2001,
 abstract = {The radial profile of the neutron production rate in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (SIEC) plasmas is numerically investigated for various device parameters, i.e., grid cathode current, grid voltage, etc. The electrostatic potential is obtained by solving the Poisson equation; and using the potential, the fuel-ion velocity distribution function is determined at each radial point. From the space-dependent velocity distribution function, the radial profile of the neutron production rate is evaluated. The influence of the broadness of the electron angular momentum distribution on the radial profile of the neutron production rate is also examined. It is shown that the height of the peak of the neutron production rate and its radial position are strongly influenced by the device parameters and the electron distribution.},
 author = {Matsuura, Hideaki and Takaki, T. and Nakao, Y. and Kudo, K.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Radial profile of neutron production rate in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035336758&doi=10.13182%2fFST01-A169&partnerID=40&md5=9a117be14ed0a13935cc672fcff440eb},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric potential;Electrons;Electrostatics;Fusion reaction rate coefficient;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Ions;Mathematical models;neutron production rate;Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Poisson equation;Spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (SIEC) plasmas},
 pages = {1167--1173},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A169}
}


@article{Matsuura.2003,
 abstract = {Correlation between ion/electron distribution functions and device performance, i.e. potential structure, density profile and neutron production rate, in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas is studied by solving the Poisson equation for various deuteron and electron distribution functions. For several combinations of the ion and electron convergences, dependence of the total neutron production rate on discharged current is discussed. It is shown that when electrons have high convergence and energetic component compared with ions, the neutron production rate can increase in proportion to more than a power of the discharged current, even if the neutron production is sustained mainly by the fusion reactions between the beam (deuteron) and background (deuterium) gases.},
 author = {Matsuura, Hideaki and Funakoshi, K. and Nakao, Y.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Correlation between ion/electron distribution functions and neutron production rate in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0141731347&doi=10.1088%2f0029-5515%2f43%2f9%2f325&partnerID=40&md5=290c321d71acbe902203de6f20def43b},
 keywords = {Deuteron distribution;Electrons;Electrostatics;High energy fuel ions;Inertial confinement fusion;Ions;Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Plasma theory;Poisson equation;Spherical inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas},
 pages = {989--998},
 volume = {43},
 number = {9},
 issn = {00295515},
 journal = {Nuclear Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0029-5515/43/9/325}
}


@phdthesis{McCarthy.2015,
 author = {McCarthy, William C. and Mucaro, Daniel L.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Development of Economic Spherical IEC Fusion Device},
 school = {{Worcester Polytechnic Institute}},
 type = {BSc. Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{McEvoy.2014,
 author = {McEvoy, A. M.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Time of Flight Diagnosis of Radial Profiles in Spherical IEC Fusion Devices},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{McGuire.2003,
 abstract = {Multiple improvements to the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion concept are presented. Prior efforts have consisted of considerable theoretical effort and numerous ground experiments resulting in the fusion of D-D, D-T, and DHe3 at rates on the order of 1010 reactions per second. Theory developed in the paper shows that prior experiments which observed a linear relationship between reaction rate and background pressure were 'confinement' limited. With improved ion confinement, the reaction rate and the pressure should decouple at high pressure where the beam-beam reactions are not yet dominant. Highly efficient beam-beam reaction rates are found to dominate the total reaction rate as ion lifetime is increased. The ion lifetime is limited mainly by collisions with background particles and by defocusing. The naturally low background pressure available in space environment effectively eliminates background pressure as a constraint on ion lifetime, leaving defocusing as the main ion lifetime limiter. In order to improve ion confinement, multiple grids are introduced to produce focusing channels for ions. The other main loss mechanism is electrons streaming from the core region to the anode. An additional grid is placed within the cathode, providing a central trap for core electrons. Theory predicts that improvements in confinement should be verifiable using existing relatively high pressure ground systems and the proposed experiment design is presented. The build-up of space charge in the focusing lenses is used to estimate improvements in confinement from {\&}lt;10 passes to the order of 1000 passes, boosting the performance of IEC reactors by 2 orders of magnitude, yielding in the near-term, fast neutron source suitable for medical, security, research and industrial applications. {\copyright} 2003 by Thomas J. McGuire.},
 author = {Mcguire, Thomas J. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 title = {Confinement limitations in gridded inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices},
 keywords = {Background particles;Background pressure;Electrodes;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Fast neutron source;High-pressure ground system;Industrial research;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Ions;Linear relationships;Neutron sources;Orders of magnitude;Propulsion;Reaction rates},
 publisher = {{American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-098-7},
 series = {Joint Propulsion Conferences},
 booktitle = {39th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2003-4829}
}


@article{McGuire.2005,
 abstract = {Multiple improvements to the inertial-electrostatic-confinement (IEC) fusion concept are presented. Prior efforts have consisted of considerable theoretical effort and numerous ground experiments resulting in the fusion of D-D, D-T, and D-3He at rates on the order of 1010 reactions per second. Theory developed in the paper shows that prior experiments, which observed a linear relationship between reaction rate and background pressure, were {\textquotedbl}confinement{\textquotedbl} limited. With improved ion confinement, the reaction rate and the pressure should decouple at high pressure where the beam-beam reactions are not yet dominant. Highly efficient beam-beam reaction rates are found to dominate the total reaction rate as ion lifetime is increased. The ion lifetime is limited mainly by collisions with background particles and by defocusing. The naturally low background pressure available in the space environment effectively eliminates background pressure as a constraint on ion lifetime, leaving defocusing as the main ion lifetime limiter. To improve ion confinement, multiple grids are introduced to produce focusing channels for ions. The other main loss mechanism is electrons streaming from the core region to the anode. An additional grid is placed within the cathode, providing a central trap for core electrons. Theory predicts that improvements in confinement should be verifiable using existing relatively high-pressure ground systems and the proposed experiment design is presented. The buildup of space charge in the focusing lenses is used to estimate improvements in confinement from {\&}lt; 10 passes to the order of 1000 passes, boosting the performance of IEC reactors by two orders of magnitude, yielding in the near term, a fast neutron source suitable for medical, security, research, and industrial applications. Further increases of confinement will enable net power production in reactors ideally suited for spacecraft power production as a result of low system mass in comparison to magnetic confinement fusion.},
 author = {Mcguire, Thomas J. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Improved confinement in inertial electrostatic confinement for fusion space power reactors},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-23244446185&doi=10.2514%2f1.8554&partnerID=40&md5=fa79b671c581a4fce098b29aca672a2a},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric space charge;Electrons;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Fusion space power reactors;High-pressure ground system;Ionization;Neutrons;Pressure effects;Spacecraft power production},
 pages = {697--706},
 volume = {21},
 number = {4},
 issn = {07484658},
 journal = {Journal of Propulsion and Power},
 doi = {10.2514/1.8554}
}


@phdthesis{McGuire.2007,
 abstract = {A high output power source is required for fast, manned exploration of the solar system, especially the outer planets. Travel times measured in months, not years, will require high power, lightweight nuclear systems. The mature nuclear concepts of solidcore fission and fusion Tokamaks do not satisfy the lightweight criteria due to massive radiators and magnets respectively. An attractive alternative is Inertial Electrostatic Confinement fusion. This extremely lightweight option has been studied extensively and to date has produced significant fusion rates of order 1010 reactions per second, but at low power gains, no higher than Q = 10-4. The major loss mechanisms for the state-of-the-art IEC are identified via a detailed reaction rate scaling analysis. The use of a single cathode grid causes short ion lifetimes and operation at high device pressure for simple ion generation both fundamentally limit the efficiency of these devices. Several improvements, including operation at much lower pressure with ion guns and the use of multiple cathode grids, are verified with particle-in-cell modeling to greatly improve the efficiency of IECs. These simulations show that the greatly increased confinement allows for the development of significant collective behavior in the recirculating ions. The plasma self-organizes from an initially uniform state into a synchronized, pulsing collection of ion bunches.(cont.) In simulations, these bunches are observed to be long-lived with lifetimes on the order of at least a tenth of a second, exceeding 20,000 passes. This represents a 3 order of magnitude improvement in confinement time and device efficiency. The synchronization of a bunch is due to the ion-ion interaction and kinematics of the well-confined IEC. The synchronization between beams is understood to arise from macroscale 'collisions' of bunches coupled with the kinematics of the device. Further, the collective effects limit the space charge buildup and higher densities result in violent ejection from the system. An IEC device which exploits the synchronization effect can achieve high efficiencies and gain, with fusion as the fastest collision timescale. Despite the potential of operation at break-even, the total power output is limited by the relatively low achievable core densities. The immediate application for this work is inexpensive neutron generators useful for medical, security, research, and industrial applications, but use much less power than a state-of-the-art IEC. The results of this thesis suggest two future research directions. First, neutralization of portions of the ion flow could allow greater densities and increase power output to levels required for space travel. Second, the idea of using kinematics coupled with ion-ion collisions to control thermalization may be applied to other plasma confinement concepts.},
 author = {Mcguire, Thomas J.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Improved Lifetimes and Synchronization Behavior in Multi-grid Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Devices},
 url = {http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/38527},
 keywords = {Aeronautics and Astronautics},
 school = {{Massachusetts Institute of Technology}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{McGuire.2008,
 abstract = {A system of multiple grids is potentially capable of improving the efficiency of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion devices. Poor ion confinement in conventional IECs is the primary reason for low fusion gain. The asymmetries due to a single grid cathode and stalk limit ions to fewer than $\sim$10-15 passes through the device regardless of collisions. Multiple grid systems are shown via a particle in cell simulation to allow ions to recirculate indefinitely in a collisionless system. Background pressure can then be reduced without loss of total fusion output, improving both fusion output and efficiency. System density is limited by the build-up of un-neutralized space charge in the recirculating ion beams. A Particle-in-Cell code provides observations of total system density versus device size and input current. A hybrid device operating with low input currents and high recirculation at moderate background pressures should provide IEC neutron generators with significantly increased electrical efficiency. {\copyright} 2008 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.},
 author = {Mcguire, Thomas J. and Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 title = {Numerical predictions of enhanced ion confinement in a multi-grid IEC device},
 keywords = {Background pressure;Efficiency;Electrical efficiency;Electrostatic devices;Hybrid devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;ion beams;Ion confinements;Ions;Neutron generators;Neutron sources;Numerical predictions;Recirculations},
 booktitle = {44th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit},
 year = {2008},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2008-4675}
}


@article{MEEKER.1971,
 author = {Meeker, D. J. and Chetr and Verdeyen, J. T.},
 year = {1971},
 title = {ELECTRON DENSITY IN AN INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT DEVICE},
 pages = {1221-{\&}},
 volume = {16},
 number = {11},
 issn = {0003-0503},
 journal = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society}
}


@article{MEEKER.1973,
 author = {Meeker, D. J. and Verdeyen, J. T. and Cherrington, B. E.},
 year = {1973},
 title = {Measurement of electron density in a cylindrical inertial electrostatic plasma confinement device},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1662154},
 pages = {5347--5355},
 volume = {44},
 number = {12},
 issn = {00218979},
 journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1662154}
}


@article{Mehrabi.2023,
 abstract = {One of the most useful non-destructive techniques for imaging low Z materials hidden behind high Z materials is fast neutron radiography (FNR). Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) as a small neutron source is an excellent apparatus for neutron radiography because of its ability to generate high-flux fast neutrons. In this study, the effects of geometric parameters on images obtained by a FNR system were investigated using MCNPX2.7 Monte-Carlo code. Geometric unsharpness can be reduced by optimizing the source-object and object-detector distance. The results showed that the contribution of scattered neutrons is approximately 0.1 {\%} of that of transmitted ones for object-detector distances greater than five times the size of the side of the object perpendicular to the beam axis. The optimal detector-object distance was 50 cm. By increasing the source- object distance, better contrast and a higher fitting between the image and the object in terms of the position was observed. The optimal source-object distance was considered 150 cm. {\copyright} 2022 Elsevier Ltd},
 author = {Mehrabi, Mohsen and Vosoughi, S. and Salek, N. and Ghapanvari, M.},
 year = {2023},
 title = {Investigation of geometric effects on fast neutron radiography using IECF},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85141288109&doi=10.1016%2fj.anucene.2022.109547&partnerID=40&md5=5e8ce27e2bf3f0b88866de519df9d0b0},
 keywords = {Fast neutron radiographies;Fast neutron radiography;Geometric effects;Geometry;High-Z material;IECF;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusions;Low-Z materials;MCNPX;Mont-Carlo;Monte Carlo methods;Neutron radiography;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Nondestructive examination;Nondestructive technique;Object detection;Object detectors;Object distance},
 volume = {181},
 issn = {03064549},
 journal = {Annals of Nuclear Energy},
 doi = {10.1016/j.anucene.2022.109547}
}


@phdthesis{Messmer.2019,
 author = {Messmer, M.C.C.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Towards advanced operation modes of magnetic and electrostatic confined fusion machines},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Meyer.2004,
 author = {Meyer, Ryan M.},
 year = {2004},
 title = {Multiple potential well structure in inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 school = {{University of Missouri-Columbia}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Meyer.2005,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices are of interest as neutron generators for many applications. Experiments by Hirsch inspired further efforts to decipher the potential distribution within IEC devices. In this paper, previous analyzes of potential distributions in IEC devices are reviewed and extended. Three types of IEC systems are classified and analyzed according to the arrangement of electrodes and the species within the system. These systems are the unipolar cathode-anode (UCA) system, the bipolar cathode-anode (BCA) system, and the bipolar anode-cathode (BAC) system. Results of extensive parametric studies are reported through an efficient method for solving the Poisson's equation. The method is benchmarked against prior computations by Hirsch and Swanson. For BCA and BAC systems, it is concluded that the double well depth (DWD) increases as the relative focusing of the secondary particle to the primary particle increases, agreeing with prior work by Momota and Miley. Although collisions are neglected in this model, and unverified energy distributions are employed, the method generally agrees with experimental observations by Gu that the DWD will increase as the perveance of the system is increased. Thus, the computations performed here serve as a valuable benchmark. {\copyright} 2005 IEEE.},
 author = {Meyer, Ryan M. and Loyalka, Sudarshan K. and Prelas, Mark A.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Potential well structures in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 keywords = {Anodes;Bipolar cathode-anode (BAC) system;Cathodes;Electrostatic accelerators;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatic devices;Fusion reactors;Inertial confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices;Ion accelerators;Mathematical models;Neutron sources;Plasma collision processes;Plasma confinement;Poisson equation;Unipolar cathode-anode (UCA) system},
 pages = {1377--1394},
 volume = {33},
 number = {4},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2005.852350}
}


@article{Meyer.2007,
 abstract = {The study of potential profiles in glow discharges initiated between concentric spherical electrodes is motivated by the experimental investigations of inertial electrostatic confinement devices, which have the potential to be used as compact neutron generators. Here, we explore double potential well regimes within the cathode of such devices, utilizing a previously developed collisionless model. This is accomplished in an efficient manner by creating contour plots of the double well depth (DWD) and the double well radius, {\textquotedbl}width,{\textquotedbl}with respect to the spreads in angular energy of electrons and ions, and with respect to the ion perveance and ratio of ion to electron perveance. These plots expand our knowledge of the DWD behavior beyond the previous understandings, both qualitatively and quantitatively. In addition, we consider the relationship of these results with the experimental results of Gu and Miley and the theoretical results of Matsuura et al in an effort to better understand the results of Gu and Miley. {\copyright} 2007 IEEE.},
 author = {Meyer, Ryan M. and Loyalka, Sudarshan K. and Prelas, Mark A.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Double potential well regimes in collisionless spherical discharges},
 keywords = {Collisionless spherical discharges;Electrodes;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatic discharge;Electrostatic discharges;Electrostatic generators;Inertial confinement;Ions;Neutron sources;Neutrons},
 pages = {354--360},
 volume = {35},
 number = {2 III},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2007.892734}
}


@article{Meyer.2008,
 abstract = {Data collected with automated double and single probes is used to evaluate the convergence of ion flow in a spherical inertial electrostatic confinement device operated in glow discharge mode. A novel method based on the invasive nature of electrostatic probes is used to evaluate the width of the ion density peak. Over much of the star mode discharge regime, it is found that Rc Rg $\sim$0.125 to 0.167 where Rc is the ion core radius, and Rg is the radius of the cathode grid, which remains fixed for all discharge conditions considered here. Near the star-to-jet mode transition, the technique shows that Rc Rg $\sim$0.250, in agreement with direct measurements of the ion density profile with the double probe. The influences of space charge accumulation and cathode grid deflection are evaluated with floating potential measurements and tangential electric field measurements, respectively. It is concluded that the observed core growth is a result of ion microchannel degradation caused by an increased frequency in inelastic and elastic molecular encounters, while the effects of space charge are negligible. {\copyright} 2008 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Meyer, Ryan M. and Smith, Z. M. and Prelas, Mark A. and Loyalka, Sudarshan K.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Ion flow convergence in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-40149097604&doi=10.1063%2f1.2837517&partnerID=40&md5=7d7eec5047aeaa5a36e3cbabc6b6058f},
 keywords = {Cathode grid;Electric space charge;Electrostatics;Flow of fluids;Glow discharges;Inertial electrostatic confinement;ion density;Ion flow convergence;Ions;Molecular physics;Plasma confinement;Plasma density},
 volume = {15},
 number = {2},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2837517}
}


@article{Meyer.2008c,
 abstract = {In this paper, several observations with regard to the nature of the glow discharge in a spherical inertial electrostatic-confinement device are reported. In particular, automated single and double Langmuir probe diagnostics are configured such that the ion-microchanneling phenomenon is directly verified. In addition, these measurements allow for the determination of the {\textquotedbl}star-to-jet{\textquotedbl} mode transition and show that microchanneling persists well into jet-mode regime despite its visual appearance. Conclusions about the overall discharge structure may also be drawn from spatial variations in the density and neutrality of the discharge. Finally, I-V characteristics obtained with the double Langmuir probe indicate the presence of energetic electrons inside of the cathode-grid region.},
 author = {Meyer, Ryan M. and Prelas, Mark A. and Loyalka, Sudarshan K.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Experimental observations of a spherical transparent cathode glow discharge},
 keywords = {Electrostatic devices;glow discharge;Inertial confinement;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;neutron  generator;Plasmas},
 pages = {1881--1889},
 volume = {36},
 number = {4},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2008.928894}
}


@article{Michalak.2017,
 abstract = {The University of Wisconsin-Madison inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device HOMER was used to perform current scans at low and moderate pressures, 0.3 and 1.0 mTorr of deuterium, in which the cathode voltage, current, and pressure were carefully controlled. The data was taken in short intervals to avoid the degrading effect of chamber heating on the fusion rate. Low pressure operation should harden the deuterium energy spectrum, but the low pressure also reduces target density. The results showed the fusion rates for 0.3 mTorr are about half that at 1 mTorr. Also, the 6 low pressure current scans had confirmed the approximately linear neutron production rates with respect to current. All 6 of the 1 mTorr current scans showed trends of slightly above linear neutron rates. Also, a new IEC steady state D-D neutron production record of 2.5 $\times$ 108 n/s was set at 150 kV, 100 mA, and 1.0 mTorr. {\copyright} American Nuclear Society.},
 author = {Michalak, Matt K. and Fancher, Aaron N. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Expanding operational space in inertial electrostatic confinement D-D neutron generators},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85029911851&doi=10.1080%2f15361055.2017.1330609&partnerID=40&md5=a09a68282fa011d294ae58d5525ffaae},
 keywords = {D-D fusion;Deuterium;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Low-pressure operations;Neutron beams;Neutron generator;Neutron generators;Neutron production rates;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Plasma interactions;University of Wisconsin - Madison},
 pages = {449--454},
 volume = {72},
 number = {3},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2017.1330609}
}


@phdthesis{Michalak.2017b,
 author = {Michalak, Matt K.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Increasing the High Voltage Capabilities and Exploring Parameter Space of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Neutron Source for the Detection of Chemical Explosives},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1990,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Hochberg, T.},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement of Fusion Plasma},
 pages = {2138},
 volume = {35},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1990}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1990b,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Hochberg, T. and Barnouin, Olivier and Gu, Y.},
 title = {An Approach to Space Power},
 booktitle = {Vision-21, Space Travel for the Next Millennium: Proceedings of a Symposium Held at the NASA Lewis},
 year = {1990}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1990c,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Barnouin, Olivier},
 title = {Electrostatic-Inertial Plasma Confinement},
 pages = {126--127},
 booktitle = {IEEE Conference Record-Abstracts},
 year = {1990}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1991,
 abstract = {The inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) concept involves trapping of charge particles in potential wells of electric fields which are produced by ions and electrons injected radially inwards into a gridded (anode-cathode) spherical configuration. Simulations of the IEC concept for confinement have been done using the XL code. Written as an aid in the design and analysis of experimental devices is an electrostatic Poisson solver design specifically for spherical geometry. Its primary purpose is to solve for an electrostatic potential consistent with charge particle dynamics, and various versions can be run on a PC or workstation. Modeling of the Illinois IEC experiment shows that a virtual anode is formed in the simulation at 100-mA ion current and 10-kV cathode voltage. Results for a range of parameters (voltages, grid transparencies, background pressures, and injected currents) were obtained and select comparisons to results from the Illinois experiment were made.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Hochberg, Timothy A. and Barnouin, Olivier and Smithe, D. and King, K.},
 title = {Computer simulation of electrostatic well formation in spherical inertial-electrostatic plasma (SIEC) confinement},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0026404931&partnerID=40&md5=13f8d678457e82c4bef67bb2985d15fe},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Electric fields;Electrostatic Walls;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Plasmas;Summary Only},
 urldate = {3 June 1991 through 5 June 1991},
 pages = {168},
 booktitle = {1991 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1991}
}


@misc{Miley.1991b,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 date = {1991},
 title = {Dense Core Plasma in an Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Device. 1991 U.S.-Japan Workshop on Nuclear Fusion in Dense Plasmas, Austin, TX, 1991. Proceedings},
 number = {DOE/ET/53088-519; IFSR-519; CONF-9110119-ON: DE92004646},
 institution = {{Joint Institute for Fusion Theory}},
 doi = {10.2172/10104633}
}


@article{Miley.1991c,
 author = {Miley, G. H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Hochberg, T. and Gu, Y. and Barnouin, Olivier and Lovberg, J.},
 year = {1991},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement: An Approach to Burning Advanced Fuels},
 pages = {840--845},
 volume = {19},
 number = {3P2A},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST91-3}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1991d,
 abstract = {Fusion offers the potential for a very high specific power, providing a large specific impulse that can be traded--off with thrust for mission optimization. Thus fusion is a leading candidate for missions beyond the moon. Here we discuss a new approach for space fusion power, namely Inertial--Electrostatic Confinement (IEC). This method offers a high power density in a relatively small, simple device. It appears capable of burning aneutronic fuels which are most desirable for space applications and is well suited for direct energy conversion.In view of its potential, IEC is currently undergoing experimental and theoretical study as a fusion power source at the University of Illinois. The goal of the research is to create a confined plasma inside multiple nested spherical potential wells. These wells are formed by injecting ions into a highly transparent, high voltage (5--50 kV) sphericl cathode. Multiple passes of ions through the center create a high density non--Maxwellian core. Preliminary experimental results are presented here.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Hochberg, Timothy K. and Barnouin, Olivier and Gu, Yibin},
 title = {Inertial--electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion for space power},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {67--76},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {1991},
 doi = {10.1063/1.40146}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1993,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion is well-suited for the burning of advanced fuels, such as D-3He. Small-scale experiments at the University of Illinois have produced encouraging results and are the basis for a conceptual design of a 25-MW D-3He gridded IEC reactor. Viewed as a pilot plant, this reactor would be used to demonstrate a net power production and to study engineering problems related to high-voltage energy conversion.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Satsangi, Ann J. and Yamamoto, Y. and Nakashima, H. and Javedani, Jalal B.},
 title = {Conceptual design for a D-3He IEC pilot plant},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0027718676&partnerID=40&md5=46361e22958d056305e3059be37c2131},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Direct energy conversion;Electric power generation;Electrostatics;helium;High voltage energy conversion;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Nuclear power plants;Pilot plants;Plasma confinement},
 urldate = {12 October 1993 through 12 October 1993},
 pages = {161--164},
 booktitle = {15th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering},
 year = {1993},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1993.518306}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1993b,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Burton, Rodney and Javedani, Jalal B. and Yamamoto, Y. and Satsangi, Ann J. and Gu, Yibin B. and Heck, P. and Nebel, Richard A. and Schulze, N. and Christensen, J. and Strellis, D. and DeMora, John M. and Cooper, S. and Ochoa, A. and Fluhrer, J.},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement as a power source for electric propulsion},
 pages = {N94-27373},
 booktitle = {Vision 21: Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace},
 year = {1993}
}


@misc{Miley.1993c,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 date = {1993},
 title = {Development of a Novel Neutron Source with Applications. Annual Report},
 number = {FSL Report 467},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1993d,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Hydrogen Generation with an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Power Source},
 pages = {183--188},
 editor = {Ohta, T. and Homma, T.},
 booktitle = {Frontier Science Series {\#}7},
 year = {1993}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1993e,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Comments on D-3He IEC Experiments and Reactor Concepts},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2nd Wisconsin Symposium on Helium-3 and Fusion Power},
 year = {1993}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1994,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Javedani, Jalal B. and Yamamoto, Y. and Nebel, Richard A. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Satsangi, Ann J. and Heck, P.},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Neutron-Proton Source},
 pages = {675--689},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1993},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2949222}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1994b,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {A Gridded D-3 He IEC Power Plant},
 publisher = {{WORLD SCIENTIFIC}},
 isbn = {9810217196, 9789810217198},
 editor = {Yasuda, Hideshi},
 booktitle = {Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems: Icenes '93 - Proceedings Of The Seventh International Conference},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1994c,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Satsangi, Ann J. and DeMora, John M. and Javedani, Jalal B. and Gu, Yibin B. and Burton, R. L. and Nakashima, Hideki},
 title = {Innovative technology for an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion propulsion unit},
 pages = {AIAA 94-3321},
 booktitle = {Proc. of the 30th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {1994},
 doi = {10.2514/6.1994-3321}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1994d,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {The IEC: A Novel Source for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy},
 pages = {INEL 940976, DWN-AC-19-94, 79-88},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Accelerator-Based Neutron Sources for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1995,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Bromley, Blair P.},
 title = {A novel IEC plasma jet thruster},
 pages = {1688/2R.25},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1995}
}


@patent{Miley.19950425,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Hochberg, Timothy A. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Javedani, Jalal B. and Satsangi, Ann J.},
 year = {1995/04/25},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Particle Generator},
 url = {https://lens.org/141-967-373-476-697},
 number = {WO 1995/030235 A3}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1995b,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {The inertial electrostatic confinement approach to fusion power},
 pages = {1419--1422},
 booktitle = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1995.534491}
}


@misc{Miley.1995c,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 date = {1995},
 title = {Development of a Novel Neutron Source with Applications in Calibration and Monitoring. Final Report},
 number = {FSL Report 526, DOE Contract DEFG02-93ER75873},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@misc{Miley.1995d,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 date = {1995},
 title = {Experimental and Theoretical Studies of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement. Final Report},
 number = {DOE/LANL 9-XG2-45958},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@article{Miley.1996,
 abstract = {Two different, complementary approaches were taken to determine the effects of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) grid's design on the neutron production rate of the device. A semi-empirical formula developed from experimental data predicts the neutron yield of an IEC device, given the chamber size, grid radius and transparency, and operating voltage and current. Results from the IXL computer program support some of the scalings found in the semi-empirical formula. A second formula was also developed that predicts the neutron yield of an IEC device using grid design parameters and the ion core radius. The SIMION computer program was used to calculate the ion core radius. These formulas are useful tools for designing grids that will maximize the neutron yield for IEC devices.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Tzonev, I. V. and Anderl, R. A. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Nebel, Richard A.},
 year = {1996},
 title = {Optimization of IEC grid design for maximum neutron production},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0030073924&doi=10.13182%2ffst96-a11963130&partnerID=40&md5=cad9e14c99f2842a6fdc4e65e1c73dd4},
 keywords = {Calculations;Computer simulation;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion core radius;Ions;neutron yield;Neutrons;Plasma devices},
 pages = {1315--1319},
 volume = {30},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst96-a11963130}
}


@patent{Miley.19960613,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Javedani, Jalal B.},
 year = {1996/06/13},
 title = {ELECTROSTATIC ACCELERATED-RECIRCULATING FUSION NEUTRON/PROTON SOURCE},
 url = {https://lens.org/149-134-591-581-238},
 number = {WO 1997/000519 A3}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1996b,
 abstract = {The inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device provides 107 2.5-MeV D-Dneutrons/second, when operated with a deuterium discharge at 70 kV [1]. This potentially provides an important portable neutron source for various activation analysis applications [2]. The discharge involved is unique, in that it uses a spherical grid in a spherical vacuum vessel. The discharge is struck between the grid and the vessel wall, and the -70-kV grid also serves to extract high-energy ions. Two features of the discharge are discussed: 1) the breakdown voltage characteristics as a function of pressure-grid/wall distance (pd); and 2) the formation of ion 'microchannels' that carry the main ion flow through grid openings.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Hochberg, Timothy A. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Anderl, R. A.},
 title = {Discharge characteristics of the spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0029703720&partnerID=40&md5=907a75559098f19f436575affc5fea19},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Current voltage characteristics;Deuterium;Electric breakdown;Electric discharges;Electrostatic devices;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device;Ions;Microchannels;Neutron activation analysis;Neutron sources;Pressure voltage characteristic;Spherical grid;Spherical vacuum vessel;Vacuum;Vacuum chamber;Vacuum pumps},
 urldate = {21 July 1996 through 26 July 1996},
 pages = {654--658},
 volume = {2},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of 17th International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 year = {1996}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1996c,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Bromley, Blair P. and Gu, Yibin B.},
 title = {A novel IEC propulsion unit for satellite applications},
 pages = {1435--1440},
 publisher = {{AIP Publishing LLC}},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1996},
 doi = {10.1063/1.49918}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1996d,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Sved, John},
 title = {The IEC, a Plasma-Target-Based Neutron Source},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the ANS Topical Meeting on Industrial Radiation and Radioisotope Measurement Applications},
 year = {1996}
}


@article{Miley.1997,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) methods have been applied to develop a novel neutron source, whereby fusion reactions occur from accelerated deuterium ions interacting with a deuterium plasma target. Current devices offer 106 to 107 2.5-MeV D-D n/s during steady-state operation. Consequently, the IEC neutron source is currently competitive with californium-252 sources but offers a number of advantages, including an on- off capability, longer lifetime without deterioration in strength, and minimum radioactivity involvement. Thus the IEC provides an excellent laboratory neutron source for a variety of clinical research projects. Two basic geometries have been developed: a 15- to 60-cm spherical unit and a 12- cm diameter by 1-m long cylindrical unit. The principle of operation of both devices is similar either a grid or hollow tube cathode is used to produce a plasma discharge and simultaneously extract and accelerate ions toward either a small spherical central plasma core or a linear core region, where neutron- producing fusion reactions occur. Research is under way to increase the D-D neutron source strength to 108 to 109 2.5-MeV n/s, and to provide a 14-MeV proton source at the same strength. If successful, these upgraded devices will greatly expand the utility of the IEC. Both will use pulsed-power technology to take advantage of the strong reaction rate scaling with current. Even larger units are envisioned, so a design study has been carried out to examine application of a high-yield IEC to boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). Such units would enable siting of dedicated local clinical facilities for BNCT.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {A novel 2.5-MeV D-D neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0030734591&partnerID=40&md5=17e7b30b8b5e5f4c6efd20adb939c7b9},
 keywords = {Boron neutron capture therapy;californium 252;Conference Paper;D-D fusion;Deuterium;Geometry;Neutron;neutron capture therapy;Nuclear energy;priority journal},
 pages = {111--121},
 volume = {13},
 number = {1},
 issn = {10944540},
 journal = {Journal of Brachytherapy International}
}


@patent{Miley.19971031,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Bromley, Blair P. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Sved, John},
 year = {1997/10/31},
 title = {PLASMA JET SOURCE USING AN INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT DISCHARGE PLASMA},
 url = {https://lens.org/011-431-383-721-431},
 number = {WO 1998/019817 A1}
}


@article{Miley.1997b,
 abstract = {The University of Illinois inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device provides 107 2.5 MeV D-D neutrons/second when operated with a steady-state deuterium discharge at 70 kV [1]. Being compact and lightweight, the IEC potentially represents an attractive portable neutron source for activation analysis applications [2]. The plasma discharge in the IEC is unique, using a spherical grid in a spherical vacuum vessel with the discharge formed between the grid and the vessel wall, while the -70 kV grid (cathode) also serves to extract high-energy ions. Two key features of the IEC discharge are discussed: 1) the breakdown voltage characteristics as a function of pressure-grid/wall distance (pd), and 2) the formation of ion {\textquotedbl}microchannels{\textquotedbl} that carry the main ion flow through grid openings. {\copyright} 1997 IEEE.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Hochberg, Timothy A. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Anderl, R. A.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Discharge characteristics of the spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031209382&doi=10.1109%2f27.640696&partnerID=40&md5=90f77b51e244e939df726332a83f42a7},
 keywords = {Activation analysis;Cathodes;Deuterium;Electric breakdown;Electrostatic devices;Hollow cathode discharge;Hollow cathode discharges;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Microchannels;neutron source;Neutron sources;Plasma breakdown;Plasma confinement;Spherical cathode;Vacuum applications},
 pages = {733--739},
 volume = {25},
 number = {4},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/27.640696}
}


@article{Miley.1997c,
 abstract = {In the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device, deuteron ions are accelerated, producing fusion reactions as they react with a deuterium plasma target. Present devices offer 106-107 2.5 MeV D-D n s-1 during steady-state operation. Higher yield pulsed versions are under development. Consequently the IEC neutron source is currently competitive, in terms of neutron strength, with Cf-252 and accelerator solid-target sources and offers a number of advantages, including an on-off capability, longer lifetime without deterioration in strength, and minimum involvement of radioactivity. These features simplify IEC usage and ease licensing restrictions. Conversion to higher energy (14 MeV) neutrons by substituting D-T fill gas for pure deuterium fill gas has confirmed the higher source strength of 108-109 D-T n s-1 for the same IEC unit size. For these reasons, the IEC provides an excellent research laboratory neutron source as well as long life, a low maintenance cost industrial source for neutron activation analysis and non- destructive testing. Two basic geometries have been developed-a spherical unit and a cylindrical unit. Spherical units have vacuum vessel diameters ranging from 15 cm to 60 cm. Present cylindrical units are approximately 12 cm in diameter and 1 m long, but smaller designs are under development. The two geometries are complementary: the spherical unit provides a 'point' source of neutrons, while the cylindrical device provides a 'line' source.

In the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device, deuteron ions are accelerated, producing fusion reactions as they react with a deuterium plasma target. Present devices offer 106-107 2.5 MeV D-D n s-1 during steady-state operation. Higher yield pulsed versions are under development. Consequently the IEC neutron source is currently competitive, in terms of neutron strength, with Cf-252 and accelerator solid-target sources and offers a number of advantages, including an on-off capability, longer lifetime without deterioration in strength, and minimum involvement of radioactivity. These features simplify IEC usage and ease licensing restrictions. Conversion to higher energy (14 MeV) neutrons by substituting D-T fill gas for pure deuterium fill gas has confirmed the higher source strength of 108-109 D-T n s-1 for the same IEC unit size. For these reasons, the IEC provides an excellent research laboratory neutron source as well as long life, a low maintenance cost industrial source for neutron activation analysis and non-destructive testing. Two basic geometries have been developed - a spherical unit and a cylindrical unit. Spherical units have vacuum vessel diameters ranging from 15 cm to 60 cm. Present cylindrical units are approximately 12 cm in diameter and 1 m long, but smaller designs are under development. The two geometries are complementary: the spherical unit provides a `point' source of neutrons, while the cylindrical device provides a `line' source.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Sved, John},
 year = {1997},
 title = {The IEC - A plasma-target-based neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031252215&doi=10.1016%2fS0969-8043%2897%2900257-1&partnerID=40&md5=6d79287b5dd849542b67f5ebd9872b4a},
 keywords = {Conference Paper;Deuterium;Deuterium plasma target;Fusion reactors;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device;ion current;Ions;linear accelerator;Neutron;Neutron activation analysis;neutron radiation;Neutron sources;Nondestructive examination;Nuclear physics;Particle accelerators;priority journal},
 pages = {1557--1561},
 volume = {48},
 number = {10-12},
 issn = {09698043},
 journal = {Applied Radiation and Isotopes},
 doi = {10.1016/S0969-8043(97)00257-1}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1997d,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin and Jurczyk, Brian},
 title = {Near-Term IEC Thrusters and Future Fusion Propulsion},
 pages = {pThpM210},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1997}
}


@article{Miley.1997e,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) of a non-Maxwellian beam-dominated plasma for fusion was originally proposed in the 1950s, but since then, only sporadic work has been devoted to the subject. Nevertheless, recent experiments have shown that small IEC devices are well-suited for commercial applications as a portable low-level neutron source for activation analysis. However, the scaling to a high-power fusion reactor is uncertain, due to the lack of experimental data with higher input currents. Three key issues need to be resolved: the stability of multiple-potential-well structures, the confinement time of energetic ions trapped in such wells, and the protection of grid structures during high-power operation. Conceptual design studies that assume a positive resolution of these issues show, however, that the resulting reactor would be economically attractive and very versatile.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {The inertial electrostatic confinement approach to fusion power},
 pages = {135--148},
 journal = {Current Trends in International Fusion Research}
}


@article{Miley.1997f,
 abstract = {Californium-252 (Cf-252) has been widely used as a laboratory neutron source for a broad range of research experiments and for neutron activation analysis. However, in some cases, problems with licensing, storage of the radioactive material, and shielding complicate its use. The inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device provides an alternative neutron source, which may be advantageous for such situations. In the IEC, deuteron ions are accelerated, producing fusion reactions as they react with a deuterium plasma target. Present devices offer 10(6) -10(7) 2.9-MeV D-D n/s during steady-state operation. Consequently, the IEC neutron source is currently competitive, in terms of neutron strength, with Cf-252 sources and offers a number of advantages, including an on-off capability, longer lifetime without deterioration in strength, and minimum radioactivity involvement. The IEC also offers the ability to convert to higher energy (14-MeV) neutrons by substituting D-T fill gas for pure deuterium fill gas. Due to the higher reaction cross-section, the source strength for the same size unit is increased to 10(8)-10(9) D-T n/s. For these reasons, the IEC provides an excellent laboratory neutron source far a variety of research projects. Two basic geometries have been developed-a spherical unit and a cylindrical unit. Spherical units, have vacuum vessel diameters ranging from 15 cm to 60 cm and have been operated, while current cylindrical units are approximately 12 cm in diameter by 1 m long. Currently smaller cylindrical designs are under development. Consequently, the spherical unit provides a ''point'' source of neutrons, while the cylindrical device provides line source.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {The IEC as a complementary neutron source to Cf-252},
 keywords = {D-D fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);neutron source},
 pages = {287--297},
 volume = {29},
 journal = {Californium-252: Isotope for 21st Century Radiotherapy}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1997g,
 author = {Miley, George H. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Zich, R. and Sved, John and Anderl, R. A. and Hartwell, J. K.},
 title = {Simulation studies of optimized electrode designs for a cylindrical IEC},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. 1997 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1997},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1997.604772}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1997h,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Zich, R. and Sved, John and Anderl, R. A. and Hartwell, J. K.},
 title = {Electron emitter pulsed-type cylindrical IEC},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. 1997 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1997},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1997.605236}
}


@article{Miley.1997i,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {A Novel 2.5-MeV D-D Neutron Source},
 pages = {111--121},
 volume = {1},
 number = {1},
 journal = {Journal of Brachytherapy International}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1997j,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Bromley, Blair P. and Gu, Yibin B.},
 title = {A Low-Power IEC Thruster for Satellite Applications},
 booktitle = {Seventh Advanced Space Propulsion Research Workshop},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1997k,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Progress in IEC Research for Near-Term Thrusters and Future Fusion Propulsion},
 booktitle = {Seventh Advanced Space Propulsion Research Workshop},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1997l,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and DeMora, John M. and Jurczyk, Brian E.},
 title = {Research on IEC-A Plasma Target-based Neutron Source},
 pages = {505},
 booktitle = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 year = {1997}
}


@incollection{Miley.1997m,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {The Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Approach to Fusion Power},
 pages = {135--148},
 publisher = {{Springer US}},
 isbn = {978-1-4615-5867-5},
 editor = {Panarella, Emilio},
 booktitle = {Current Trends in International Fusion Research},
 year = {1997},
 address = {Boston, MA}
}


@article{Miley.1998,
 abstract = {The possible development of confined fusing plasma devices for near-term applications such as neutron activation analysis is discussed. The inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device is used as an example. Current units are being developed for use as a low-yield portable neutron source for NAA. The strategy for extension to an intense neutron source for uses such as neutron damage studies is discussed. The `in-line' development of fusing plasma applications is viewed as an important supporting element in the longer term progress of fusion power developments.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Some near-term applications of fusing plasmas},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0032202871&doi=10.13182%2ffst98-a11963659&partnerID=40&md5=8c79cb15ba3a20f1d1c9eb2e92faa4c9},
 keywords = {Confined fusing plasmas;Electrostatics;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Neutron activation analysis;Neutron sources;Plasma applications;Plasma confinement;Radiation damage;Tokamak devices},
 pages = {484--488},
 volume = {34},
 number = {3 pt 2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst98-a11963659}
}


@patent{Miley.19981112,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Jurczyk, Brian E. and Gu, Yibin B. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Williams, Michael J.},
 year = {1998/11/12},
 title = {INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT (IEC) FUSION DEVICE WITH GATE-VALVE PULSING},
 url = {https://lens.org/080-826-672-018-16X},
 number = {WO 1999/024990 A3}
}


@article{Miley.1998b,
 abstract = {The University of Illinois inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device provides 107 2.5-MeV D-D neutrons per second (n s-1), when operated with a steady-state deuterium discharge at 70 kV (G.H. Miley et al., Inertial electrostatic confinement neutron/proton source, in: M. Haines, A. Knight (Eds.), 3rd Int. Conf. Dense Z-pinches, AIP Conf. Proc. 299, AIP Press, New York, 1994, pp. 675-689). Being compact and lightweight, the IEC potentially represents an attractive portable neutron source for activation analysis applications (R.A. Anderl et al., Development of an IEC neutron source for NDE, 16th IEEE/NPSS Symp. Fusion Engineering, IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, 1996, pp. 1482-1485). The plasma discharge in the IEC is unique, using a spherical grid in a spherical vacuum vessel with the discharge formed between the grid and the vessel wall, while the cathode grid also serves to extract high-energy ions. Two key features of the IEC discharge physics are discussed: (1) the formation of ion 'microchannels' that carry the main ion flow through grid openings; and (2) the potential well structure formed in the dense central core. {\copyright} 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and DeMora, John M. and Ohnishi, M.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Accelerator plasma-target-based fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0032475158&doi=10.1016%2fS0920-3796%2898%2900148-3&partnerID=40&md5=04349c59bfdce773813f4e7e8bad477c},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Ions;Neutron activation analysis;Neutron sources;Plasma discharges;Plasmas;Targets},
 pages = {461--467},
 volume = {41},
 number = {1-4},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/S0920-3796(98)00148-3}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1998c,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (TEC) is a unique approach to fusion and plasma energy systems that was conceptualized in the 1960s (Hirsch 1967) and has been the focus of recent development in the 1990s (Miley et al. 1995a). In the interests of space power and propulsion systems, conceptual rocket design studies (Bussard and Jameson 1994, Miley et al. 1995b) using the IEC have predicted excellent performance for a variety of space missions, since the power unit avoids the use of magnets and heavy drives resulting in a very high, specific impulse compared to other fusion systems. In their recent survey of prior conceptual design studies of fusion rockets, Williams and Borowski (1997) found that the Bussard IEC conceptual study (the {\textquotedbl}QED{\textquotedbl} engine) offered a thrust-to-weight ratio of 10 milli-g's, a factor of five higher than conventional magnetic confinement concepts and even slightly above anti-proton micro fission/fusion designs. Thus there is considerable motivation to study IEC concepts for eventual space applications. However, the physics feasibility of the IEC still requires experimental demonstration, and an expanded data base is needed to insure that a power unit can in fact be built.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Bromley, Blair P. and Jurczyk, Brian E. and Stubbers, Robert A. and DeMora, John M. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Gu, Yibin B.},
 title = {Scaling of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) for near-term thrusters and future fusion propulsion},
 pages = {1373--1375},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1998},
 doi = {10.1063/1.54762}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1998d,
 abstract = {The cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device developed at the UI uses a hollow electrode-reflector configuration to achieve an elongated (`line-like') neutron source. This unique geometry is of strong interest for applications requiring uniform neutron coverage of large areas. Operation involves trapping ions between two hollow anodes such that they recirculate through the hollow cathode placed between the anodes. Dish-like end reflectors (negative bias) reduce electron losses and refocus electrons in a volume within the anodes, increasing ionization, hence the ion source, there. Under operation, the ions are focused such that they recirculate in a constricted beam region as they pass the cathode. This configuration has been studied experimentally in both steady-state and pulsed-mode operation; the neutron axial distribution being measured with small pressurized `bubble' detectors. Corresponding computations have heavily utilized a charged-particle tracking code in conjunction with an approximate fluid plasma model. Ion dynamic computations will be discussed in detail in the presentation.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and DeMora, John M. and Stubbers, Robert A.},
 title = {Ion dynamics in the cylindrical IEC},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031645495&partnerID=40&md5=e5991611a3aa782c27a4ad44776da7a2},
 keywords = {Approximate fluid plasma models;Approximation theory;Cathodes;Computational methods;Cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device;Electrostatic devices;Ion dynamics;Ion sources;Mathematical models;Plasma confinement},
 urldate = {1 June 1998 through 4 June 1998},
 pages = {131--132},
 booktitle = {1998 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1998}
}


@article{Miley.1999,
 abstract = {Portable neutron sources are of strong interest for uses such as industrial neutron activation analysis and various medical research applications. The inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device under development at the University of Illionis is intended for such uses and also provides a tunable X-ray source (required reverse bias and added electron emitters). The IEC operates as an accelerator plasma-target type device, and when filled with deuterium presently provides 107 $\sim$ 2.5 MeV D-D fusion neutrons/s. D-T fill gas gives 14 MeV neutrons, with rates about 100 times that of D-D, but with the added complication of handling low levels of tritium. Research on higher yield versions now under development is described. Still, in the interim, the IEC, due to its compactness, portability, simplicity and flexibility offers a unique portable neutron/X-ray source. {\copyright} 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 year = {1999},
 title = {A portable neutron/tunable X-ray source based on inertial electrostatic confinement},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-1942468296&doi=10.1016%2fS0168-9002%2898%2901108-5&partnerID=40&md5=58569baee00c40950ad147389ccf22c2},
 pages = {16--20},
 volume = {422},
 number = {1-3},
 issn = {01689002},
 journal = {Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment},
 doi = {10.1016/S0168-9002(98)01108-5}
}


@patent{Miley.19990427,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B.},
 year = {1999/04/27},
 title = {SPHERICAL INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT DEVICE AS TUNABLE X-RAY SOURCE},
 url = {https://lens.org/037-587-651-393-572},
 number = {KR 20000052855 A}
}


@patent{Miley.19990913,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Sved, John and Jurczyk, Brian E.},
 year = {1999/09/13},
 title = {Method and apparatus for producing complex carbon molecules},
 url = {https://lens.org/160-106-939-428-171},
 number = {US 6171451 B1}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1999b,
 abstract = {Computational studies of the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) devices have yielded amazing results. An analytical model of charge exchange collisions in the IEC plasma has been developed to include ion time-of-flight and fusion neutron generation rates. Results from the model simulating 10 mA of D2+ ion current in a 30-cm diameter IEC device at 50 kV match the experimental results of 106 fusion neutrons per second. The model has also been used to find the effects of grid diameter on neutron yield and show that it scales as diameter-0.4058. This factor is very close to the experimental scaling factor of diameter-0.4171.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and DeMora, John M. and Jurczyk, Brian E. and Nieto, Martin},
 title = {Computational studies of collisional processes in inertial electrostatic glow discharge fusion devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0033295384&partnerID=40&md5=6a79deaa5719c55acb6c969adac0b165},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Deuterium;Electrostatic glow discharge fusion devices;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Glow discharges;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutrons;Plasma collision processes;Plasma confinement;Positive ions},
 urldate = {25 October 1999 through 29 October 1999},
 pages = {23--26},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1999c,
 abstract = {Fusion propulsion is one of the most attractive options for deep space missions. However, ``conventional'' fusion systems involving magnetic or inertial confinement typically involve heavy auxiliary. Here a radically different approach, inertial electrostatic confinement (DEC) is explored. If the underlying physics for the EEC can be developed without a bottleneck, this offers an extremely attractive approach. In addition to a very high specific impulse and power-to-mass ratio, due to its converging beam nature, the IEC is especially well suited to burning advanced fuels like D-He3 or p-B11 such that neutron-induce radioactivity and shielding requirements are drastically reduced. The basic principles of the DEC, its possible incorporation into space systems, and key physics issues requiring study are described here. A ``fast track'' development plan for scale up of the present laboratory scale experiments to high power devices is discussed. {\copyright} 1999 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Jurczyk, Brian E. and Stubbers, Robert A. and DeMora, John M. and Chac{\'o}n, Luis and Nieto, Martin},
 title = {Issues for development of inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) for future fusion propulsion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84963837859&doi=10.2514%2f6.1999-2140&partnerID=40&md5=bc0fb37c700f60b49ac9e201699518b0},
 keywords = {Deep space missions;Development plans;Electrostatics;fusion propulsion;High specific impulse;High-power devices;Inertial confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Interplanetary flight;Power-to-mass ratio;Propulsion},
 booktitle = {35th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.2514/6.1999-2140}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1999d,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu},
 title = {Criteria for Potential Trap Formation in an IEC},
 pages = {KO1.03},
 volume = {41},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1999e,
 abstract = {There is an urgent need for small power units for on-board and landing site power for space travel. The conceptual design of a 1-MWe Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion unit burning D-3He fuel is considered here for such applications. The IEC is attractive for space power---its non-Maxwellian beam-beam character is well-suited for D-3He operation, small size units with a high specific power density are conceivable. Small scale IEC experiments have produced encouraging results and are used here as the basis for extrapolation to the space power unit. However, critical scale-up experiments are essential to verify the feasibility of the concept.},
 author = {Miley, G. H.},
 title = {A D-3He IEC power unit for space applications},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {1327--1332},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1063/1.57526}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.1999f,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B.},
 title = {IEC Neutron Source Development and Potential Well Measurements},
 pages = {179--195},
 publisher = {{NRC Research Press}},
 editor = {Planarella, Emilio},
 booktitle = {Current Trends in International Fusion Research: Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2000,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Nam, Yoon and Momota, Hiromo},
 title = {Virtual Well Formation in Nonneutral IEC Discharges},
 pages = {GO1.011},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2000}
}


@article{Miley.2000b,
 abstract = {Based on research at the University of Illinois, a commercial neutron source has been developed by Daimler Chrysler Aerospace using a small grided-type Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) plasma device (Miley and Sved, 1997) This device employs a unique {\textquotedbl}Star-Mode{\textquotedbl} deuterium plasma discharge to create ion-beam driven fusion reactions in a plasma target (Miley et al., 1997a, 1997b, 1997c; Miley, 1999). As such, it represents the first commercial application of a confined fusing plasma. The Star-Mode discharge is an essential feature of this device since it minimizes ion-grid collisions and also allows tight beam focussing. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Sved, John},
 year = {2000},
 title = {The IEC star-mode fusion neutron source for NAA - status and next-step designs},
 keywords = {IEC fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron generator;Plasma target},
 pages = {779--783},
 volume = {53},
 number = {4-5},
 issn = {09698043},
 journal = {Applied Radiation and Isotopes},
 doi = {10.1016/S0969-8043(00)00215-3}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2000c,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Converging Beam Neutron source},
 pages = {P18.007},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS April Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2000}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2001,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) offers a unique ion-beam-plasma-target configuration for production of neutrons via D-D or D-T fusion reactions. Research at the U. of IL has developed a unique {\textquotedbl}STAR{\textquotedbl} mode of operation where a basketball-shaped grid in the spherical (r similar to 15 cm) vacuum vessel creates intense ion beams focused at the center of the vessel, forming a dense fusing plasma core (target). Key advantages of this unique design are that grid sputtering is greatly reduced and good beam focusing is achieved. Commercial versions of this concept have been developed that offer 10(7) 2.45-MeV D-D neutrons/sec (or 10(9)/sec D-T). Such units are typically used to replace Cf-252 sources for industrial NAA. Next generation devices with rates above 109/sec D-D are currently under development. The IEC also provides a small tunable x-ray source (5-100 keV) for research applications by reversing the grid potential and also installing electron emitters. The changeover requires several hours down time, or, if needed, a separate dedicated IEC x-ray unit could be constructed.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {A portable neutron/tunable x-ray source based on inertial electrostatic confinement},
 keywords = {device},
 pages = {683--686},
 volume = {576},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {2000}
}


@patent{Miley.20010226,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu},
 year = {2001/02/26},
 title = {Apparatus and methods for controlling charged particles},
 url = {https://lens.org/113-303-278-118-050},
 number = {US 6593539 B1}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2001b,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {The IEC Device as a Low Cost Student Experiment with a Burning Fusion Plasma},
 pages = {V9.012},
 volume = {46},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {2001}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2001c,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Gridded IEC Discharge Physics with an Auxiliary Ion Source},
 pages = {Q9.005},
 volume = {46},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {2001}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2002,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromo},
 title = {Physics Issues for a Next Generation High-Yield Ion -Injected IEC},
 pages = {BO1.013},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2002}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2002b,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromo and Shaban, Yasser R. and Hora, Heinrich},
 title = {Progress in Development of a Converging Beam Neutron Source for Driving a Sub-Critical Fission Reactor},
 pages = {541--547},
 volume = {2},
 booktitle = {10th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering (ICONE 10)},
 year = {2002},
 doi = {10.1115/ICONE10-22149}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2003,
 abstract = {Neutron activation including Thermal Neutron Analysis (TNA) and Fast Neutron Analysis (FNA) are powerful methods for detecting certain types of explosives in luggage/cargoes. A Cylindrical Converging Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (RC-IEC) device provides a unique method to provide dual energy neutrons and x-rays for such inspections. As an accelerator plasma-target device, the IEC is simpler, can be switched on or off, and can reliably produce neutrons and x-rays with minimum maintenance. In an IEC, a high voltage grid (cathode), at $\sim$80kV, is located in a grounded vacuum vessel (anode). A plasma discharge is formed between the grid and wall using low pressure D gas (or D-T). The grid then extracts and accelerates ions towards the centerline. The converging ion beams form a high-density plasma along the center axis, and continued ion bombardment of this {\textquotedbl}target{\textquotedbl} creates fusion neutrons (2.5 MeV for D-D fusion or 14.7 MeV for D-T). The IEC also offers a dedicated x-ray source by reversing the polarity of the electrodes and using either hydrogen or a noble gas fill. In this paper, we discuss the way to improve the neutron yield from the CR-IEC, and describe a conceptual inspection system, which includes a RC-IEC neutron/x-ray generator array, a detector array, and corresponding controllers. A fuzzy logic control/analysis system is proposed to obtain an optimal interpolation of the combined signals with minimum interrogation time.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Wu, Linchun},
 title = {IEC-based neutron generator for security inspection system},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-2642519003&partnerID=40&md5=a6d3dbb4d339ad5add45b9ce8eb74734},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cathodes;Electrodes;Explosives;Fast neutron analysis;Fusion reactions;Fuzzy sets;Hydrogen;Inert gases;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Interpolation;Ion sources;Neutron activation analysis;Nuclear reactors;Radiation;Radioactive materials;Radioisotopes;Thermal neutron analysis;Thermal noise;X rays},
 urldate = {1 June 2003 through 5 June 2003},
 pages = {924--929},
 booktitle = {International Meeting on Nuclear Applications of Accelerator Technology: Accelerator Application in a Nuclear Renaissance},
 year = {2003}
}


@patent{Miley.20030212,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Javedani, Jalal B.},
 year = {2003/02/12},
 title = {Electrostatic accelerated-recirculating-ion fusion neutron/proton source},
 url = {https://lens.org/117-627-786-009-156},
 number = {US 2003/0223528 A1}
}


@patent{Miley.20030325,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Shaban, Yasser R.},
 year = {2003/03/25},
 title = {Methods, apparatus, and systems involving ion beam generation},
 url = {https://lens.org/088-031-343-601-823},
 number = {US 6777699 B1}
}


@article{Miley.2003b,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices offer a unique method to generate energetic ions for excitation of rare gas and rare gas halide excimers. A unique feature for this approach is that it allows small sized units with the ion source and excimer medium contained in vessels of order 30-cm radius. The IEC operates by applying a high negative voltage (up to -100 W) on a spherical mesh grid (cathode) located in the center of a grounded grid (anode), all within a spherical vacuum vessel(1). A plasma discharge is created between the grids. The cathode extracts ions from the discharge and accelerates them towards the center of the device. Large ion background gas collision densities are created in the center region and along the ion beam paths, creating intense light emission. An alternate approach discussed here allow lower operating pressures and reduced ion thermalization, giving improved emission efficiencies, uses an external RF ion generator to separate the injected species from the mixture. The injector increases the device size, but a compact RF source has been developed which involves injector diameters of only similar to 6 cm by 30-cm length. Designs for such devices and their operation will be described.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Shaban, Yasser R.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Small ion driven VUV/UV light sources for laboratory applications},
 keywords = {Fusion;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT},
 pages = {109--118},
 volume = {5196},
 issn = {0277-786X},
 journal = {Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets    Xii},
 doi = {10.1117/12.504399}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2003c,
 abstract = {One of the fundamental needs for Mars colonization is an abundant source of energy. The total energy system will probably use a mixture of sources based on solar energy, fuel cells, and nuclear energy. Here we concentrate on the possibility of developing a distributed system employing several unique new types of nuclear energy sources, specifically small fusion devices using inertial electrostatic confinement and portable {\textquotedbl}battery type{\textquotedbl} proton reaction cells.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Shaban, Yasser R.},
 title = {Distributed power sources for Mars colonization},
 pages = {1211--1218},
 volume = {654},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {2003}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2003d,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Stubbers, Robert and Webber, Jason and Shaban, Yasser and Burton, Rodney and Richardson, Nathan},
 title = {Collimator Experiments for IEC-Based Spacecraft Propulsion},
 publisher = {{American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-098-7},
 series = {Joint Propulsion Conferences},
 booktitle = {39th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2003-4828}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2003e,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Momota, Hiromo},
 title = {Advances in Cylindrical IEC Neutron Source Design for Driven Sub-Critical Operation},
 pages = {ICONE11-36550},
 booktitle = {The Proceedings of the International Conference on Nuclear Engineering (ICONE)},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.1299/jsmeicone.2003.364}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2003f,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, H. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Wu, Linchun and Kim, H. J.},
 title = {Experimental Simulation of a Proton Collimator for a Fusion Space Thruster},
 booktitle = {NASA/MSFC/JPL/UAH 14h Annual Advanced Space Propulsion Workshop(ASPW 2003)},
 year = {2003}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2004,
 abstract = {A novel plasma jet thruster, based on Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) technology, is described for orbit transfer operations. While electronically driven, it represents a foresummer of a future fusion powered unit. The IEC thruster employs a spherical configuration, wherein ions are generated and accelerated towards the center of a spherical vacuum chamber where a high-density central core region accelerated ions into an intense quasi-neutral ion jet. Compared to other high-power plasma thrusters, the IEC offers advantages in design simplicity and minimum propellant leakage, plus a high power-to-weight ratio.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Stubbers, Robert A.},
 title = {A novel electric thruster based on IEC plasma jet technology},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-14844323714&partnerID=40&md5=5ca480075edcc84c9395269bd50e2e84},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric equipment;Electric thrusters;Energy storage;Inertial confinement fusion;Plasma density;Plasma jet technology;Plasma jets;Power-to-weight ratio;Propellants;Vacuum;Vacuum chambers},
 urldate = {13 June 2004 through 17 June 2004},
 pages = {2234--2239},
 booktitle = {2004 International Congress on Advances in Nuclear Power Plants, ICAPP'04},
 year = {2004}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2004b,
 abstract = {The main collimator design principles and results form the electron collimator experiments are discussed. A high performance 750 MW thrust manned vehicle in the 500 metric ton class, Fusion Ship II was designed to provide a round trip travel time of $\sim$ 1 year for outer planet mission \textgreek{d}V of 202,000 m/s. A magnetic collimator was used in Fusion Ship II to direct the energetic protons into a travelling wave direct converter that converted the proton kinetic energy into electrical power for driving ion thrusters. proton collimation involved the conversion of an isotropic source of highly energetic protons from a source, such as an IEC fusion reactor, into a collimated beam.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Stubbers, Robert A. and Webber, J. and Wu, Linchun and Kim, H. J.},
 title = {Collimator experiments for IEC-based spacecraft propulsion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-13244292248&partnerID=40&md5=8f9534bd36060a79e8b70c141597d3ec},
 keywords = {Database systems;Electrons;Fusion reactions;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Isotropic flow;Kinetic energy;Leakage (fluid);Magnetic collimators;Optical collimators;Proton collimators;Protons;radioactivity;Spacecraft},
 urldate = {21 March 2004 through 25 March 2004},
 pages = {160--161},
 booktitle = {14th Pacific Basin Nuclear Conference},
 year = {2004}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2004c,
 abstract = {The use of an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) sub-critical assembly for teaching laboratories was discussed. The IEC device provides a fusion neutron source which represents an attractive design for a novel sub-critical driven research reactor. It was found that the small IEC neutron sources can be inserted in fuel element positions, providing a distributed neutron source. It was also observed that the potential well structure, formed by virtual anodes and cathodes, enhances the ion confinement and increases the fusion ion density, hence neutron rate, along the central axis.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Wu, Linchun and Momota, Hiromu},
 title = {An IEC driven sub-critical assembly for teaching Laboratories offering a new generation of sub-critical experiments},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-13244258339&partnerID=40&md5=39803313518d2cc53bd3a69d4a7c4165},
 keywords = {Accident prevention;Benchmarking;Deuterium;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Ion confinements;Monte Carlo methods;Neutrons;Nuclear fuels;Nuclear reactors;Teaching;Training operations;Vacuum;Vacuum vessels},
 urldate = {21 March 2004 through 25 March 2004},
 pages = {237--238},
 booktitle = {14th Pacific Basin Nuclear Conference},
 year = {2004}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2004f,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Shrestha, Prajakti J. and Yang, Yang and Thomas, Robert},
 title = {Electrostatic-Dipole (ED) Fusion Confinement Studies},
 pages = {JO3.013},
 volume = {46},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2004}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2004g,
 abstract = {Ion injection into the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion power plant used in the design of the high performance Fusion Ship II (Burton et al., 2003) is a key technological issue for development of this concept. This paper discusses the design and initial experiments with a radiofrequency (RF) ion gun designed for this purpose. The RF Gun design described here was found to have some important advantages over other ion gun designs: simple construction, a higher extraction efficiency; 10 ((mA/cm2)/W), a lower divergence; 10.8 $\pm$ 0.36 mrad, and a very intensive ion flux; 6 x 1018 ions/(cm2.sec) measured at 0.27 Pa.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {RF Ion Gun Injector in Support of Fusion Ship II Research and Development},
 url = {http://fsl.ne.uiuc.edu/IEC/Miley_AIP(2004b).pdf},
 pages = {406--412},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {2004},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1649599}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2004h,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Ion Injected IEC Discharge Physics},
 pages = {ES1.024},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Annual Gaseous Electronics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2004}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2004i,
 abstract = {A radical new Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) concept, the Magnetically--Channeled Spherical--IEC Array (MCSA) fusion propulsion system, was proposed earlier for use in the high performance Space Ship II fusion propulsion ship (Burton, 2003). This ship was designed for a fast manned round trip mission to Jupiter. The MCSA fusion power plant represents a key enabling technology needed for this mission. The details of the proposed MCSA design are presented here, along with a discussion of some possible experiments that could be performed to confirm key physics aspects.},
 author = {Miley, G. H. and Stubbers, R. and Webber, J. and Momota, H.},
 title = {Magnetically--Channeled SIEC Array (MCSA) Fusion Device for Interplanetary Missions},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {399--405},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {2004},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1649598}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2005,
 abstract = {Fusion is generally recognized as one of the most attractive power sources suitable for manned interplanetary missions. A conceptual design for deep space propulsion based on inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion, {\textquotedbl}Fusion Ship II{\textquotedbl}, was recently presented [1,2]. An IEC fusion power unit was selected because its simplified confinement structure gives a very high power-to-weight ratio. While scale up of the IEC to the power levels needed faces a number of difficult physics and technological challenges, no {\textquotedbl}show stoppers{\textquotedbl} are evident [3]. D-3He fuel is assumed in the design study, generating 14.7-MeV protons as the primary reaction product, minimizing radioactivity, and allowing efficient direct energy extraction/conversion. A magnetic collimator is used to direct the energetic protons into a traveling wave direct converter that converts the proton kinetic energy into electrical power for driving ion thrusters [4]. An alternate concept is to use the proton beam, mixed with heavier ions to provide direct thrust. In both cases, the proton collimator is the key component required for efficiently generating thrust from the fusion reaction products. Preliminary study of the collimator using an experimental unit using electrons to simulate protons is described here.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Webber, J. and Yang, Y. and Thomas, Robert and Takeyama, Yoshikazu and Wu, Linchun},
 title = {Thruster design for IEC-based spacecraft propulsion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-27844450956&partnerID=40&md5=abf0aa87427b643a2b078afaf76c3412},
 keywords = {Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Energy conversion;Energy extraction;Fusion products;Fusion reactions;Interplanetary flight;Magnetic collimator;Nuclear propulsion;radioactivity;Space research;Spacecraft propulsion},
 urldate = {5 June 2005 through 9 June 2005},
 pages = {775--780},
 booktitle = {American Nuclear Society Embedded Topical Meeting - 2005 Space Nuclear Conference},
 year = {2005}
}


@article{Miley.2005b,
 abstract = {In this paper, the use of a combined X-ray and neutron source for security inspections based on Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion is discussed. Current inspection systems typically use X-ray techniques, but thermal neutron analysis (TNA) and fast neutron analysis (FNA), allow expanded detection of certain types of explosives. The integrated unit proposed here uses three separate IEC sources producing 14 and 2.45 MeV neutrons plus soft X-rays. This combination allows multiple detection methods with the composite signal analysis being done by a fuzzy logic system, significantly reducing false signals. {\copyright} 2005 Akad{\'e}miai Kiad{\'o}.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Wu, Linchun and Kim, H. J.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {IEC-based neutron generator for security inspection system},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-17144415878&doi=10.1007%2fs10967-005-0031-3&partnerID=40&md5=c949f4c5da3f4b498341ecc3ccdff907},
 keywords = {Conference Paper;electricity;fast neutron radiation;Neutron;organization and management;separation technique;signal transduction;X ray analysis},
 pages = {159--164},
 volume = {263},
 number = {1},
 issn = {02365731},
 journal = {Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry},
 doi = {10.1007/s10967-005-0031-3}
}


@article{Miley.2005d,
 author = {Miley, G. H. and Hora, Heinrich and Osman, Frederick and Yang, Yang and Wu, Linchun and Momota, Hiromo and Li, Xing Zhong},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Low cost long distance detector for explosive and chemical analysis by IEC application},
 pages = {1529},
 volume = {2},
 number = {11},
 journal = {American J. Appl. Sci.}
}


@article{Miley.2005e,
 author = {Miley, G. H. and Yang, Y. and Webber, J. and Shaban, Y. and Momota, H.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {RF Ion Source-Driven IEC Design and Operation},
 pages = {1233--1237},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A856}
}


@article{Miley.2005f,
 abstract = {Neutron activation including Thermal Neutron Analysis (TNA) and Fast Neutron Analysis (FNA) are powerful methods for detecting certain types of explosives in luggage/cargoes. A Cylindrical Converging Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (RC-IEC) device provides a unique method to provide dual energy neutrons and x-rays for such inspections. As an accelerator plasma-target device, the IEC is simpler, can be switched on or off, and can reliably produce neutrons and x-rays with minimum maintenance. In an IEC, a high voltage grid (cathode), at $\sim$80kV, is located in a grounded vacuum vessel (anode). A plasma discharge is formed between the grid and wall using low pressure D gas (or D-T). The grid then extracts and accelerates ions towards the centerline. The converging ion beams form a high-density plasma along the center axis, and continued ion bombardment of this {\textquotedbl}target{\textquotedbl} creates fusion neutrons (2.5 MeV for D-D fusion or 14.7 MeV for D-T). The IEC also offers a dedicated x-ray source by reversing the polarity of the electrodes and using either hydrogen or a noble gas fill. In this paper, we discuss the way to improve the neutron yield from the CR-IEC, and describe a conceptual inspection system, which includes a RC-IEC neutron/x-ray generator array, a detector array, and corresponding controllers. A fuzzy logic control/analysis system is proposed to obtain an optimal interpolation of the combined signals with minimum interrogation time.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Wu, Linchun and Kim, H. J.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Nuclear Techniques in National Security Studies on Contraband Detection},
 url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10967-005-0031-3},
 pages = {159--164},
 volume = {263},
 number = {1},
 issn = {02365731},
 journal = {Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry},
 doi = {10.1007/s10967-005-0031-3}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2006c,
 abstract = {A potential opportunity to enhance Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion propulsion exists by introducing a magnetic dipole into the IEC chamber. The dipole fields should increase the plasma density, hence fusion rate, in the center region of the IEC and the combined IEC and dipole confinement properties will reduce plasma losses. To demonstrate that a hybrid Dipole-IEC (DaIEC) configuration can provide improved confinement vs. a stand alone IEC, a first model DaIEC experiment has been benchmarked against a reference IEC. A triple Langmuir probe was used to measure the electron temperature and density. It was confirmed that the magnetic field increases the electron density by an order of magnitude and the addition of a controlled electrical potential to the dipole structure allows control of space charge buildup in the dense core region. This paper describes the dipole assisted IEC concept, its advantages, and soon missions it is well suited for. Here the present status of DaIEC experiments are described, the issues for scale up are discussed, and a conceptual plan for a power unit development is presented. {\copyright} 2006 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi and Thomas, Robert and Takeyama, Yoshikazu},
 title = {Space propulsion based on dipole assisted IEC system},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-33751252590&doi=10.1063%2f1.2169307&partnerID=40&md5=24be02562da81be9715605a0328c63e7},
 keywords = {Dipole;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Plasma density},
 urldate = {12 February 2006 through 16 February 2006},
 pages = {1240--1248},
 booktitle = {AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2169307}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2007,
 abstract = {A radical new Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion concept, the Magnetically-Channeled IEC Trap Array (MCTA) is studied as a candidate power unit for interplanetary space travel. IEC fusion concepts are widely recognized to be attractive for space power because they are simple and lightweight. However, existing experimental IEC concepts, while very successful for low-level power neutron sources, do not project to high power space applications due to poor confinement time scaling and grid heating/losses. The MCTA concept addresses both issues - eliminating the need for a central grid by injecting energetic ions towards center of a configuration and providing improved confinement by connecting number of traps. Because of the linearly connected geometry and good accessibility of a traveling wave direct energy converter, aneutronic fuels, such as D-3He, can be implemented. Thus, the MCTA concept has the potential to accomplish the demanding requirements of future deep space propulsion and power by providing a high power-density propulsion system. This promise was amply demonstrated in a reasonably detailed design study by Burton et al, which used a MCSA to accomplish a fast manned mission to Mars. In the present paper, we discuss the basic MCTA concept and pin point stability issues that must be resolved to access the feasibility of this concept. Some important supporting data carries over from prior IEC experiments, but a full MCTA configuration has yet to be studied experimentally. If proven feasible, the MCTA development path would involve experiments at progressively higher powers aimed at the ultimate demonstration of a full-scale multi- hundred-MW propulsion unit.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Linchun, W.},
 title = {Magnetically-channeled IEC trap array fusion device for interplanetary missions},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36549076524&partnerID=40&md5=0cf68595d8b28253bbe94b8bc3c61a4d},
 keywords = {Aneutronic fuels;Electrostatics;Energy conversion;Fusion reactions;Interplanetary flight;Interplanetary missions;Manned space flight;Neutrons;Propulsion unit;Spacecraft propulsion;Time scaling},
 urldate = {24 June 2007 through 28 June 2007},
 pages = {127--131},
 booktitle = {Space Nuclear Conference 2007 - Embedded Topical Meeting, SNC'07},
 year = {2007}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2007b,
 abstract = {A new concept that builds on Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion, the Magnetically-Channeled Spherical-IEC Array (MCSA) propulsion system is examined for interplanetary space travel. IEC fusion is widely recognized to be attractive for space power because these units are simple and lightweight, giving a very high specific power. However, existing experimental IEC devices, while very successful for low-level power neutron sources, do not project to high power space applications due to poor confinement time scaling and grid heating/losses. The MCSA concept addresses both issues - eliminating the need for a central grid and providing improved confinement time scaling. While the geometry uses coupled IEC units, the real innovation in the MCSA concept lies in the formation of potential and magnetic field surfaces such that leaking particles are retrapped along with the creation of a grid-less potential well confinement region. The latter is based on formation of a virtual electrode configuration due to the interaction of multiple ionelectron space charge effects and the geometric convergence. This trapping effect combined with flow through multiple units, results in a greatly improved fuel economy and also gives a significant increase in the overall plasma confinement time. Then, due to these benefits plus the non-Maxwellian nature of IEC confinement, aneutronic fuels, such as D-3He and p-B11, can be efficiently implemented. These fuels provide an ample source of high-energy protons (or alphas), ideally suited for use as an ultra-high ISP thruster. At the same time radiation problems associated with tritium and neutrons are minimized or eliminated. Thus, the MCSA concept has the potential to accomplish the many requirements of future deep space propulsion and power by providing a high power-density propulsion system. This promise was amply demonstrated in a reasonably detailed design study by Burton et al., which used a multiple IEC fusion engine fueled with D-3He to accomplish an ultra-fast manned mission to Mars. With the physics improvements achieved in the MCSA concept, even better performance is predicted. While important supporting experimental data carries over from prior IEC studies, a full multi-unit MCSA configuration has yet to be studied experimentally. In the present paper, we first discuss the basic MCSA physics and then pin point remaining physics issues that must be resolved to access the feasibility of this concept. If proven feasible, the MCSA development path would involve some initial low power coupling experiments followed by devices operating at progressively higher powers aimed at the ultimate demonstration of a full-scale multi-MW propulsion unit. Such a development plan is outlined along with rough time and cost estimates.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Wu, Linchun},
 title = {Magnetically-channeled IEC fusion for interplanetary travel},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36749037147&partnerID=40&md5=7910fd448a87990ed8744d35e0f374b9},
 keywords = {Alpha particles;Electrodes;Electrostatics;Geometric convergence;High-energy protons;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Magnetic fields;Magnetically-Channeled Spherical-IEC Array (MCSA);Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Spacecraft propulsion},
 urldate = {8 July 2007 through 11 July 2007},
 pages = {5956--5964},
 booktitle = {43rd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit},
 year = {2007}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2007c,
 abstract = {A resurgence in use of nuclear power is now underway worldwide. However a number of university research reactors have been shut down. Thus student laboratories must rely more heavily on substitute experiments such as use of sub-critical assemblies. Here a novel driven sub-critical assembly for student laboratory use is proposed that uses a cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device to provide a fusion neutron source. The IEC allows a variable neutron source rate, greatly extending the range of student experiments possible with this assembly vs. the conventional radioisotope driven sub-critical. The small IEC neutron source would be inserted in a fuel element position, with its power input controlled externally at a control panel. This feature opens the way to use of the critical assembly for a number of transient experiments such as sub-critical pulsing and neutron wave propagation. That in turn adds important new insights and excitement for the student teaching laboratory. Such developments can be considered as a stepping stone towards eventual development of IEC driven subcritical power reactors. Like the accelerator-solid target driven power reactor concepts discussed in recent years, this approach would offer important safety advantages. It would differ from the accelerator version, however, by allowing smaller distributed IEC neutron sources to be inserted into select fuel element channels much as described for the student laboratory devices. This leads to an improved neutron flux distribution and lower system costs.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Wu, Linchun and Momota, Hiromu and Hora, Heinrich and Li, X. Z. and Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi},
 title = {Advances in design of driven subcritical fission reactor using a plasma target neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-58349113835&partnerID=40&md5=70093f854d969e3f08882f1c97a39b4e},
 keywords = {Control panels;Critical assemblies;Elementary particle sources;Experiments;Fuel elements;Fusion neutron sources;Laboratories;Neutron flux distributions;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Nuclear fuel elements;Nuclear powers;Nuclear reactors;Plasma targets;Power inputs;Power reactors;Radioisotopes;Research reactors;Shut downs;Solid targets;Stepping stones;Student experiments;Student laboratories;Students;System costs;Teaching laboratories;Transient experiments;University researches},
 urldate = {29 July 2007 through 2 August 2007},
 pages = {591--596},
 booktitle = {8th International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Applications and Utilization of Accelerators, ACCAPP'07},
 year = {2007}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2007d,
 abstract = {A path for the expeditious development of D-3He fusion for terresial and space power is discussed. The availability of lunar 3He resources makes this a key opportunity for future space exploration. A relatively rapid development path appears feasible based alternate fusion confinement concepts combined with the simplified technology required for small plants. D-3He benefits (vs. conventional D-T fusion) include full-lifetime materials, reduced radiation damage, less activation, absence of tritium breeding blankets, highly efficient direct energy conversion, easier maintenance, and proliferation resistance. To illustrate the potential for D-3He propulsion systems, a recent conceptual design for deep space propulsion based on inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion, {\textquotedbl}Fusion Ship II{\textquotedbl}. is reviewed.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Wu, Linchun and Momota, Hiromu and Santarius, John F.},
 title = {On D-3He fusion reactor development for fusion propulsion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-35649001931&partnerID=40&md5=e63f1d16f0eb1ef400e5eb07519c48b1},
 keywords = {Activation analysis;Breeding blankets;Direct energy conversion;fusion propulsion;Fusion reactors;helium;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Radiation;Tritium;Tritium breeding blankets},
 urldate = {25 June 2007 through 28 June 2007},
 pages = {429--442},
 booktitle = {5th International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference},
 year = {2007},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2007-4749}
}


@article{Miley.2008,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and LINCHUN, W. U.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {A Neutron Generator based on a Linear IEC},
 pages = {281--282},
 volume = {99},
 issn = {0003-018X},
 journal = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2009b,
 abstract = {The spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) is of interest as a near-term neutron source [1] and as a future alternate fusion power concept [2]. In spherical inertial confinement devices, virtual cathode-anode formation creates an ion trap, improving ion confinement and increasing beam-beam fusion reactions. First proposed by Farnsworth and Hirsch (see Ref. 1), ion trap formation, (or multiple traps call `poissors') has been questioned [3]. However, recent experimental studies at the U of IL using collimated detection of D-D protons have demonstrated trap evolution once the IEC operation exceeds a critical pervance value of 1-2 I(mA)/V(kV)3/2 in deuterium [4]. In this small device, the background neutrals are not yet `burned out', so the earlier trap theory must be extended to this case. Charge-exchange plays two key roles in the dynamics: the energy spread of ions entering the trap region is narrowed and trapped thermalized ions are preferentially removed. This model for trap dynamics and corresponding measurements will be discussed in detail in the presentation.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B.},
 title = {Ion trap physics in a spherical IEC},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031642321&partnerID=40&md5=bc7f67d1e3b55831ff0265aa49fceaae},
 keywords = {Electrostatics;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);ion beams;Ion trap physics;Neutron sources;Plasma devices;Plasma theory},
 urldate = {1 June 1998 through 4 June 1998},
 pages = {159},
 booktitle = {1998 IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1998}
}


@article{Miley.2009c,
 abstract = {A radical new inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion concept, the magnetically channeled IEC trap array (MCTA), is studied as a candidate power unit for interplanetary space travel. IEC fusion concepts are widely recognized to be attractive for space power because they are simple and lightweight. However, existing experimental IEC concepts, while very successful for low-level power neutron sources, do not project to high-power space applications because of poor confinement-time scaling and grid heating/losses. The MCTA concept addresses both issues: eliminating the need for a central grid by injecting energetic ions into this unique hybrid configuration and providing improved confinement by connecting a number of traps. Because of the linearly connected geometry and compatibility with an efficient traveling wave direct-energy converter, aneutronic fuels, such as D-3He, can be implemented. Thus, the MCTA concept has the potential to accomplish the demanding requirements of future deep-space propulsion and power by providing a high power-density propulsion system. This promise was amply demonstrated in an earlier, reasonably detailed design study by University of Illinois researchers that used an MCTA to accomplish a fast manned mission to Jupiter. In the present paper, we discuss the basic MCTA concept and examine stability issues that must be resolved to access the feasibility of this concept. Some important supporting data carry over from prior IEC experiments, but a full MCTA configuration has yet to be studied experimentally. If proven feasible, the MCTA development path would involve experiments at progressively higher powers aimed at the ultimate demonstration of a full-scale, several-hundred-MW propulsion unit.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Wu, Linchun},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Magnetically channeled IEC trap array fusion device for interplanetary missions},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-67949103684&doi=10.13182%2fNT09-A8843&partnerID=40&md5=a8cbf635f4f03252d85dc6ba6c883dce},
 keywords = {Direct energy converters;Electrostatics;fusion propulsion;High power density;Hybrid configurations;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Interplanetary flight;Interplanetary mission;Interplanetary space;Neutron sources;Propulsion;Space applications;Spacecraft power supplies;Spacecraft propulsion;University of Illinois;Wave energy conversion},
 pages = {295--300},
 volume = {166},
 number = {3},
 issn = {00295450},
 journal = {Nuclear Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/NT09-A8843}
}


@article{Miley.2009d,
 abstract = {Earlier studies have described Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion power concepts using either D-He3 or p-B11 fuels to provide a high-power density fusion propulsion system capable of aggressive deep space missions. However, this requires a large multi-GW thruster forcing a long term development program. As a first step, we examine here a progression of near-term IEC thrusters, stating with a 1-10 kWe electrically-driven IEC jet thruster for satellites followed by a small 50-100 kW IEC fusion thruster module for next generation large deep space spacecraft. The initial electrically-powered unit is a novel multi-jet plasma thruster based on spherical IEC technology using electrical input power from a solar panel. This type of unit is discussed and its advantages for next step electrically driven units are identified.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Wu, Linchun and Reilly, Michael P. and Burton, Rodney and Teofilo, Vince L. and Dell, Dick and Dell, Richard and Hargus, W. A.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Space probe application of IEC thrusters},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-68949093953&doi=10.13182%2fFST09-A8958&partnerID=40&md5=ab0bf953fb1c77dd0d1e677d9fec52fb},
 keywords = {Deep space missions;Electrical inputs;Fusion propulsion system;High power density;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Interplanetary flight;Long-term development;Plasma thrusters;Propulsion;Solar panels;Space flight},
 pages = {533--539},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-A8958}
}


@article{Miley.2009e,
 abstract = {A resurgence in nuclear power use is now underway worldwide. However, due many university research reactors shutdown, they must rely on using sub-critical assemblies which employs a cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device to provide a fusion neutron source. The source is inserted in a fuel element position, with its power input controlled externally at a control panel. This feature opens the way to use of the critical assembly for a number of transient experiments such as sub-critical pulsing and neutron wave propagation. That in turn adds important new insights and excitement for the student teaching laboratory. {\copyright} Akad{\'e}miai Kiad{\'o}, 2009.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Amadio, Guilherme and Leon, Hugo and Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi and Hora, Heinrich},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Cylindrical IEC neutron source design for driven research reactor operation},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84890556947&doi=10.1007%2fs10967-009-0261-x&partnerID=40&md5=208343741e2c50befc18b6c5fba347e8},
 keywords = {Driven subcritical assembly;Fission reactor kinetics;Fusion neutrons;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron activation analysis;neutron source;Research reactor;Security inspection station;Student nuclear laboratory},
 pages = {193--197},
 volume = {282},
 number = {1},
 issn = {02365731},
 journal = {Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry},
 doi = {10.1007/s10967-009-0261-x}
}


@article{Miley.2009f,
 abstract = {Hot plasmas offer an efficient method to carry out a number of advanced industrial processes such as water process, hydrogen production, and materials recycle. Here we discuss use of a unique Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) plasma jet for these processes. In the case of hydrogen production, water is completely dissociated in the ultra hot jet plasma and then the ions mass is separated along with recovery of their excess energy, yielding pure gas products and electricity. For waste processing, the ultra hot plasma treatment produces syn-gases, coke and electrical products. The IEC plasma jet unit and its use for industrial processing are described here. While initial small distributed units would use electrical input, future large plants are envisioned to use a fusion powered unit.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Gough, William C. and Yang, Xiaoling and Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi and Leon, Hugo},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Plasma Torch Process for Hydrogen Production at Small Distributed Stations},
 keywords = {hydrogen production;Inertial electrostatic confinement;plasma hydrogen production;plasma jet;plasma processing},
 pages = {127--130},
 journal = {Clean Technology 2009: Bioenergy, Renewables, Storage, Grid, Waste and    Sustainability}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2009g,
 abstract = {Earlier conceptual design studies (Bussard, 1990; Miley et al., 1998; Burton et al., 2003) have described Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion propulsion to provide a high-power density fusion propulsion system capable of aggressive deep space missions. However, this requires large multi-GW thrusters and a long term development program. As a first step towards this goal, a progression of near-term IEC thrusters, stating with a 1 - 10 kWe electrically-driven IEC jet thruster for satellites are considered here. The initial electrically-powered unit uses a novel multi-jet plasma thruster based on spherical IEC technology with electrical input power from a solar panel. In this spherical configuration, Xe ions are generated and accelerated towards the center of double concentric spherical grids. An electrostatic potential well structure is created in the central region, providing ion trapping. Several enlarged grid opening extract intense quasi-neutral plasma jets. A variable specific impulse in the range of 1000-4000 seconds is achieved by adjusting the grid potential. This design provides high maneuverability for satellite and small space probe operations. The multiple jets, combined with gimbaled auxiliary equipment, provide precision changes in thrust direction. The IEC electrical efficiency can match or exceed efficiencies of conventional Hall Current Thrusters (HCTs) while offering advantages such as reduced grid erosion (long life time), reduced propellant leakage losses (reduced fuel storage), and a very high power-to-weight ratio. The unit is ideally suited for probing missions. The primary propulsive jet enables delicate maneuvering close to an object. Then simply opening a second jet offset 180 degrees from the propulsion one provides a {\textquotedbl}plasma analytic probe{\textquotedbl} for interrogation of the object. The technology underlying this electrically-driven jet unit leads naturally to a next generation fusion driven unit. For example, a low-Q version of one of the modules designed for the magnetically-channeled IEC trap array propulsion plant (Miley and Wu, 2007) could be used for next generation power units to replace current HCTs. These commonly generate 0.2 - 1.0 Newton's of thrust and 3-12 kWe for LEO or MEO to GEO orbit transfer as well as station keeping or orbit plane changes. The fusion IEC version offers major advances in system power density and eliminates use of increasingly scarce fuels like Xe. A feature of the IEC type fusion device is its non-Maxwellian operation, enabling use of advanced fuels such as the D-He employed in the Space Ship II design (Burton et al, 2003). p-B11, such as used in (Bussard, 1990), represents an ultimate goal. Such units would initially be for large orbiting satellites, and then scaled up for use as a power/propulsion unit for a manned Mars or beyond interplanetary spacecraft. {\copyright} 2009 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Wu, Linchun and Reilly, Michael P. and Vince, L. Teofilo and Burton, Rodney and Dell, Richard and Dell, Dick and Hargus, W. A.},
 title = {IEC thrusters for space probe applications and propulsion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-65549095026&doi=10.1063%2f1.3115492&partnerID=40&md5=0d3b6c3d64e216d6ec535ba0a1ea6db1},
 keywords = {Fusion thruster;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Plasma thruster;Space thruster},
 urldate = {24 February 2009 through 26 February 2009},
 pages = {164--174},
 booktitle = {Space, Propulsion and Energy Sciences International Forum, SPESIF 2009},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3115492}
}


@article{Miley.2009k,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Yang, Xiaoling and Rice, Eric},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Distributed Power Sources for Mars},
 keywords = {Fusion;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;STEEL},
 pages = {213--239},
 journal = {Mars: Prospective Energy and Material Resources},
 doi = {10.1007/978-3-642-03629-3{\textunderscore }8}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2010,
 abstract = {The development of a unique long cylindrical neutron source for broad area neutron activation analysis (NAA) is presented. This source uses inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) to produce 2.54 MeV D-D or 14.1 MeV D-T fusion neutrons for applications ranging from security inspection stations to driven-subcritical research assemblies. This design uses a biased grid to initial in a unique {\textquotedbl}star{\textquotedbl} mode plasma discharge forming beam-background gas (target) fusion. In spherical geometry it routinely produces $\sim$108 2.54-MeV D-D fusion neutrons/s at steady-state. Pulsed operation has achieved up to 109 neutrons/sec. (equivalent to 1011 n/s using D-T fill). Indeed, a version of the spherical IEC has been produced commercially as a portable neutron source for industrial NAA applications. Recently a cylindrical (2-dimensional version) design based on the spherical unit has been developed. This provides a unique long {\textquotedbl}line-like{\textquotedbl} neutron source for use in broad area NAA. This IEC forms ion beams in the volume between the grounded wall and the concentric cylindrical grid. Those beams converge in the center, much like in the star mode spherical IEC. To date, neutron yields of up to 108 D-D neutrons/sec have been achieved with the cylindrical device. A sealed-off unit using getters for gas storage-control has been developed to simplify use in practical applications such as a luggage inspection station. Such units would be filled with deuterium at a central fueling facility, and sent out to the field. After extended operation, they would be returned to this facility for refilling. Copyright {\copyright} 2010 by ASME.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Leon, Hugo and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Amadio, Guilherme and Khan, A. and Chen, George and Matisiak, William and Azeem, Ali and Keutelian, P. and Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Leon, Hugo and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Amadio, Guilherme and Khan, Atanu and Chen, George and Matisiak, William and Azeem, Ali and Keutelian, Paul},
 title = {Cylindrical IEC fusion neutron source for broad area NAA // Cylindrical IEC Fusion Neutron Source for Broad Area NAA},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-80055028203&doi=10.1115%2fICONE18-30368&partnerID=40&md5=15bc86d1d90182ba547083532383da0d},
 keywords = {D-D fusion;D-D neutrons;Deuterium;D-T fusion;Electric discharges;Fusion neutron source;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Metals;Neutron activation analysis;Neutron sources;Neutron yields;Neutrons;Nuclear engineering;Nuclear industry;Plasma discharge;Pulsed operation;Spheres;Spherical geometries;Stars},
 urldate = {17 May 2010 through 21 May 2010},
 pages = {659--665},
 booktitle = {18th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering, ICONE18},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.1115/ICONE18-30368}
}


@article{Miley.2010b,
 abstract = {A fundamental need for Mars colonization is an abundant source of energy for local utilities, manufacturing, waste treatment and terraforming. Two fusion nuclear power units, the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion torch and small Low Energy Nuclear Reaction (LENR) power units, have unique capabilities for such use. Most of the resources that are needed by these two power units exist on Mars. This allows construction and operation of these units directly on Mars, greatly reducing transportation costs. The IEC device would provide a central unit in 500 kilowatts to 1 Mega watts; LENR units would serve as portable sources ranging from watts up to kilowatts. To start colonization, an IEC fusion torch would produce super greenhouse gases to warm up the planet, plus producing oxygen and nitrogen for breathable air, by decomposing and recombining materials in the ultra hot IEC fusion torch plasma. The first IEC power plant, LENR power unit and some robotics would be brought from earth. Robots powered by LENR units would perform iron mining for use by an IEC plasma torch in steel making and carrying out self-reproducing production of more power plants.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Yang, Xiaoling},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Fusion power sources for mars exploration},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84862883301&partnerID=40&md5=6eaf5fa4d9bfdb8c96f3f9ad65be1fd4},
 keywords = {Inertial electrostatic confinement;Low energy nuclear reaction;Mars colonization},
 pages = {371--375},
 volume = {63},
 number = {9-10},
 issn = {0007084X},
 journal = {JBIS - Journal of the British Interplanetary Society}
}


@article{Miley.2011,
 abstract = {The development of a unique long cylindrical neutron source for broad area neutron activation analysis (NAA) is presented. This source uses inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) to produce 2.54 MeV D-D or 14.1 MeV D-T fusion neutrons. The IEC offers a variety of applications ranging from security inspection stations to driven-subcritical research assemblies. This IEC design uses a biased grid to initial in a unique star mode plasma discharge creating beam-background gas (target) fusion reactions. They routinely produce $\sim$108 2.54 MeV D-D neutrons/s at steady state. Pulsed operation has achieved upto 109 n / s. ($\sim$1011 n / s if a deuterium mixture is used). Indeed, a version of the IEC has been commercially produced as a portable neutron source for industrial NAA applications. While that IEC source used spherical geometry, the present work uses a cylindrical version which provides a unique long linelike neutron source for use in the present broad area NAA system. {\copyright} 2011 American Society of Mechanical Engineers.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Leon, Hugo and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Amadio, Guilherme and Khan, A. and Chen, George and Matisiak, William and Azeem, Ali and Keutelian, P.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Cylindrical IEC fusion neutron source for broad area NAA},
 keywords = {D-D neutrons;Deuterium;D-T fusion;Electric discharges;Fusion neutron source;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron activation analysis;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Plasma discharge;Pulsed operation;Spherical geometries;Steady state},
 volume = {133},
 number = {12},
 issn = {07424795},
 journal = {Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power},
 doi = {10.1115/1.4002889}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2011b,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Orcutt, J. and Keutelian, P. and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi and Krishnamurthy, A.},
 title = {Pulsed fusion rocket - An ultra high Isp variable thrust deep space vehicle powered by Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84876486857&partnerID=40&md5=7ac54dd90b7926f17b3caa755ed91e68},
 urldate = {30 October 2011 through 3 November 2011},
 pages = {25--26},
 booktitle = {2011 ANS Annual Winter Meeting and Embedded Topical Meetings: 1st ANS SMR 2011 Conference and Young Professionals Congress 2011},
 year = {2011}
}


@article{Miley.2011c,
 abstract = {The design basis for a possible near-term driven subcritical assembly for student labs using a cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion neutron source is described. The rebirth of nuclear fission power is going to require a new generation of training facilities for students. The IEC driven subcritical provides a very versatile facility for such training. The IEC source can provide various neutron waveforms (pulses, sinusoidal ramp ,etc.) by varying the applied voltage. This opens up an important class of dynamic experiments for student lab study. Driven subcritical operation also eases regulatory requirements and limitations on core configuration changes needed in various student experiments while also introducing the student to the important fusion-fission reactor concept. The possibility of employing the IEC source for future fusion-fission reactors is also briefly discussed.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Wu, Linchun and Momota, Hiromu and Hora, Heinrich and Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Driven subcritical assembly using a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84867608843&doi=10.13182%2fFST11-A12452&partnerID=40&md5=ded8653c422597209e44c3064c88a230},
 keywords = {Core configuration;Dynamic experiment;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Nuclear fission power;Nuclear reactors;Regulatory requirements;Student experiments;Students;Subcritical assembly},
 pages = {620--624},
 volume = {60},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST11-A12452}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2011d,
 abstract = {A fundamental need for Mars colonization is an abundant source of energy for local utilities, manufacturing, waste treatment and terraforming. Two fusion nuclear power units, the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion torch and small Low Energy Nuclear Reaction (LENR) power units, have unique capabilities for such use. Most of the resources that are needed by these two power units exist on Mars. This allows construction and operation of these units directly on Mars, greatly reducing transportation costs. The IEC device would provide a central unit in 500 kWe - 1 MWe size; LENR units would serve as portable sources ranging from Ws to kWs. To start colonization, an IEC fusion torch would produce super greenhouse gases to warm up the planet, plus producing oxygen and nitrogen for breathable air, by decomposing and recombining materials in the ultra hot IEC fusion torch plasma. The first IEC power plant, LENR power unit and some robotics would be brought from earth. Robots powered by LENR units would perform iron mining for use by an IEC plasma torch in steel making and carrying out self-reproducing production of more power plants.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Yang, Xiaoling},
 title = {Fusion power sources for Mars exploration},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-79960886174&partnerID=40&md5=9803656f7c29ba5bc8c28a84eeab74ba},
 keywords = {Electrostatics;Energy conversion;Fusion power;Global warming;Greenhouse gases;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Iron and steel plants;Low energy nuclear reaction;Low energy nuclear reactions;Mars colonization;Mars exploration;Martian surface analysis;Nitrogen;Nitrogen plasma;Nuclear energy;Nuclear physics;Nuclear power unit;Power plants;Power units;Source of energy;Terraforming;Transportation cost;Waste treatment},
 urldate = {7 February 2011 through 10 February 2011},
 pages = {159--164},
 booktitle = {Nuclear and Emerging Technologies for Space 2011, NETS-2011},
 year = {2011}
}


@article{Miley.2012,
 abstract = {Recent progress infusion development combined with the rebirth of nuclear fission power has regenerated interest in fusion-fission hybrid reactors. Such systems could be applied to both low power research reactors for use in University and industrial research assemblies and power reactors. However most attention has been directed at D-T fusion drivers using Tokamak, ICF or various alternate confinement systems like FRCs. However, the necessity to have large devices and breed tritium in the blanket complicates the concept. Here we propose the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion approach since it offers the advantages of simple structural, high power density and a non-Maxwellian beam dominated plasma suited for burning advanced fuels to minimize tritium involvement. The cylindrical IEC allows a small compact unit which can be inserted into fuel element slots in the fission reactor core, thus providing a compact overall system and excellent neutronic coupling. The basic physics for the IEC has been demonstrated in small-scale laboratory experiments close to levels needed for driving a subcritical assembly for use in student teaching labs. However, for use in future high power hybrids significant scale-up in source strength is required. Scale up using an external ion source (e.g. a Helicon) so the background gas pressure is minimized in the reaction zone potentially offers a route to the required neutron source strength.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Boyer, Bradley},
 year = {2012},
 title = {Fusion-fission hybrid using a D-D cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) driver},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84857579286&doi=10.13182%2fFST12-A13420&partnerID=40&md5=2dd281e180cd51f14531982a7f2ccbaf},
 keywords = {Electrostatics;Fusion-fission hybrid;Fusion-fission hybrid reactor;Industrial research;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Ion sources;Laboratory experiments;Magnetoplasma;Neutron source strength;Neutron sources;Nuclear fission power;Nuclear reactors;Subcritical assembly;Tritium},
 pages = {200--205},
 volume = {61},
 number = {1 T},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST12-A13420}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2012b,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Discussion of the Design for a Fusion Space Probe -- Viper Pulsed Fusion Rocket},
 booktitle = {19th Advanced Space Propulsion Workshop (ASPW2012)},
 year = {2012}
}


@book{Miley.2014,
 abstract = {This book provides readers with an introductory understanding of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC), a type of fusion meant to retain plasma using an electrostatic field. IEC provides a unique approach for plasma confinement, as it offers a number of spin-off applications, such as a small neutron source for Neutron Activity Analysis (NAA), that all work towards creating fusion power. The IEC has been identified in recent times as an ideal fusion power unit because of its ability to burn aneutronic fuels like p-B11 as a result of its non-Maxwellian plasma dominated by beam-like ions. This type of fusion also takes place in a simple mechanical structure small in size, which also contributes to its viability as a source of power. This book posits that the ability to study the physics of IEC in very small volume plasmas makes it possible to rapidly investigate a design to create a power-producing device on a much larger scale. Along with this hypothesis the book also includes a conceptual experiment proposed for demonstrating breakeven conditions for using p-B11 in a hydrogen plasma simulation. This book also: Offers an in-depth look, from introductory basics to experimental simulation, of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement, an emerging method for generating fusion power Discusses how the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement method can be applied to other applications besides fusion through theoretical experiments in the text Details the study of the physics of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement in small-volume plasmas and suggests that their rapid reproduction could lead to the creation of a large-scale power-producing device Perfect for researchers and students working with nuclear fusion, Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applications also offers the current experimental status of IEC research, details supporting theories in the field and introduces other potential applications that stem from IEC. {\copyright} Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014. All rights are reserved.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion: Fundamentals and applications},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84929846677&doi=10.1007%2f978-1-4614-9338-9&partnerID=40&md5=171be3bd6492800a3ba01b7941e7a224},
 keywords = {Activity analysis;Break-even conditions;Electrostatics;Experimental simulations;Facsimile;Fusion reactions;Hydrogen plasmas;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Maxwellian plasmas;Mechanical structures;Neutron sources},
 volume = {9781461493389},
 publisher = {{Springer New York}},
 isbn = {9781461493389},
 series = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion: Fundamentals and Applications},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-4614-9338-9}
}


@incollection{Miley.2016,
 abstract = {Remarks made in the author's acceptance lecture for the 1995 Edward Teller Medal are presented and expanded. Topics covered include research on nuclear-pumped lasers, the first direct e-beam-pumped laser, direct energy conversion and advanced fuel fusion, plus recent work on inertial electrostatic confinement. ?Patience? and ?optimism? are viewed as essential elements needed by scientists following the ?zig-zag? path to fusion energy production.



Remarks made in the author's acceptance lecture for the 1995 Edward Teller Medal are presented and expanded. Topics covered include research on nuclear-pumped lasers, the first direct e-beam-pumped laser, direct energy conversion and advanced fuel fusion, plus recent work on inertial electrostatic confinement. ?Patience? and ?optimism? are viewed as essential elements needed by scientists following the ?zig-zag? path to fusion energy production.},
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {1995 Edward Teller Lecture Patience and Optimism (LIRPP Vol. 12)},
 pages = {179--196},
 publisher = {{Imperial College Press}},
 isbn = {1865-3529},
 editor = {Hora, Heinrich and Miley, George H.},
 booktitle = {Edward Teller Lectures},
 year = {2016},
 doi = {10.1142/9781911299660{\textunderscore }0013}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2017,
 author = {Miley, George H.},
 title = {Driven subcritical assembly using a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84875652694&partnerID=40&md5=85420dffc4e9885e20eebb22cf41ecf6},
 pages = {120--121},
 booktitle = {2010 ANS Annual Meeting and Embedded Topical Meeting: Isotopes for Medicine and Industry},
 year = {2010}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2017b,
 author = {Miley, George H. and Ahern, Drew},
 title = {Helicon-injected inertial electrostatic confinement neutron source or space propulsion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85033479819&partnerID=40&md5=e21b29884bc4d96fd17d519b26e2a4ed},
 pages = {343--344},
 booktitle = {2017 Transactions of the American Nuclear Society, ANS 2017},
 year = {2017}
}


@inproceedings{Miley.2020,
 abstract = {Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is an electric propulsion concept specifically being developed for space vehicles. It combines a helicon source (used to generate high density plasma at low input power) and an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) chamber to extract the ions from helicon using Nickel grids. Another feature is that IEC grids produce a stream of electrons that are used to neutralize the plasma during the exhaust stage. Research in the past has established HIIPER as a successful concept for space propulsion with numerous advantages -- high-density plume, compatibility with different propellants and neutral exhaust. One of the main shortcomings is the low thrust generated and hence low overall efficiency of the propulsion system. These shortcomings can be overcome by reducing the ion loss to the walls of different components inside the system and improving the plasma acceleration with the help of a magnetic nozzle (MN). Addition of a magnetic nozzle as the third stage of HIIPER, for thrust augmentation, has been studied computationally. Excessive radio frequency (RF) noise in the experimental setup had interfered with the acquired data in prior studies. New Langmuir probe measurements with reduced noise are used to gather ion densities at different positions to confirm the point of ion loss inside the setup. Numerical data from simulations is used to measure the deviation/error and estimate the accuracy of the experimental setup. Overall study is involved the following -- 1. Numerical studies using COMSOL to find the position of ion loss inside the experimental setup. 2. COMSOL simulations to ascertain the advantages of integrating HIIPER with a MN. 3. Performance evaluation of existing experimental setup after reducing excessive RF noise. It was established that maximum ions were neutralized after colliding with the walls of helicon-IEC chamber coupling. This caused the previous experimental results to show lower performance parameters of the plasma. A 27 {\%} increase is estimated in the force exerted by ions after passing through a magnetic nozzle. This estimation is based on the numerical results and will be validated through future experiments. This insight and results from comparison new Langmuir probe measurements with the trend established in prior studies confirms that further optimization of the helicon setup should enable HIIPER to be used as an attractive space propulsion system.},
 author = {Miley, George H. and Puri, Rohan and Cai, Qiheng},
 title = {Study of the Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) Integrated with a Magnetic Nozzle},
 url = {https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2020-4083},
 pages = {1--14},
 booktitle = {Accelerating Space Commerce, Exploration, and New Discovery Conference, ASCEND 2020},
 year = {2020},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2020-4083}
}


@phdthesis{Minderhout.2014,
 author = {Minderhout, B.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Photon radiation produced by the fusor theoretical model and measurements},
 url = {https://pure.tue.nl/ws/files/67736677/850820-1.pdf},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Misawa.2012,
 abstract = {The detection of hidden special nuclear materials (SNMs) is important issue for nuclear security. For this purpose, we have been developing an active neutron-based interrogation system combined with a D-D fusion neutron source, which is a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IEC (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Fusion) device and provides pulsed neutrons of 2.45MeV. The neutron noise analysis method and the detection of high energy fission neutron spectrum are employed for detection of SNMs. {\copyright} 2012 IEEE.},
 author = {Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Yamaguchi, Y. and Yagi, Takahiro and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Masuda, Kai and Kajiwara, T. and Ohgaki, Hideaki},
 title = {Development of the active neutron-based interrogation system with D-D neutron source for the detection of special nuclear materials},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84881580864&doi=10.1109%2fNSSMIC.2012.6551072&partnerID=40&md5=8a156014f1eeb4f4b3007c2ab6ea1369},
 keywords = {D-D neutron source;Fiber optic sensors;Fission neutron spectrums;Fusion neutron source;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusions;Interrogation system;Medical imaging;Neutron noise analysis;Neutron sources;Nuclear physics;Nuclear security;Radioactive materials;Special nuclear materials},
 urldate = {29 October 2012 through 3 November 2012},
 pages = {114--117},
 booktitle = {2012 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference Record (NSS/MIC)},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.1109/NSSMIC.2012.6551072}
}


@inproceedings{Misawa.2018,
 abstract = {Detection of hidden special nuclear materials (SNMs) used for nuclear explosives such as 235 U is important issue for nuclear security to counter terrorist threats. The interrogation systems used in a port and an airport has been developing in the world, and the active neutron-based interrogation system is the one of the candidates for this purpose. We are developing an active neutron-based interrogation system combined with radiation detectors and a D-D neutron source usable in seaports and airports. The D-D neutron source shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is a compact and light-weight portable discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion) device [1]. It provides 2.45 MeV mono-energetic neutrons whose production rate is more than 5x10 7 n/s in CW mode without using radioisotope such as tritium. An mportant advantage of IEC comes from the use of {\textquotedbl}gas target{\textquotedbl} and this enables stable high-power operation of IEC devices to produce copious amount of D-D neutrons in a compact system. We adopted new Threshold Energy Neutron Analysis (TENA) method and neutron and gamma-ray noise analysis method based on the variance-to-mean value method in the present interrogation system. {\copyright} 2018 IEEE.},
 author = {Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Kitamura, Y. and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Masuda, Kai and Bakr, Mahmoud A.},
 title = {Development of Portable SNMs Detection System with D-D Neutron Source based on Combination of Noise Analysis and Threshold Energy Neutron Analysis Method},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85073101610&doi=10.1109%2fNSSMIC.2018.8824330&partnerID=40&md5=8fc4f543f08810e61442675c1daee6e0},
 keywords = {D-D neutron source;Explosives detection;Fiber optic sensors;Fusion neutron source;Gamma rays;High-power operation;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Interrogation system;Medical imaging;Mono-energetic neutrons;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Nuclear explosives;Ports and harbors;Radiation detectors;Radioactive materials;Special nuclear materials;Uranium},
 booktitle = {2018 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference Proceedings (NSS/MIC)},
 year = {2018},
 doi = {10.1109/NSSMIC.2018.8824330}
}


@book{Mishima.1996,
 year = {1996},
 title = {Cancer Neutron Capture Therapy},
 address = {Boston, MA},
 publisher = {{Springer US}},
 isbn = {978-1-4757-9567-7},
 editor = {Mishima, Yutaka}
}


@inproceedings{Mitchell.1995,
 abstract = {An experiment is being constructed at Los Alamos to investigate the possibility of using a Penning trap as a fusion confinement device. The goal is to demonstrate electron densities greater than the Brillouin density at the center of the trap by filling it with particles occupying a very restricted region of phase space. The trap under construction has a containment region diameter of 6 mm, standoff lengths of 25 mm, and gaps between electrodes of 1.5 mm. High voltage tests have demonstrated standoff breakdown voltages of ≳100 kV, and established that titanium electrodes offer better performance than stainless steel or copper ones. The main diagnostic of the degree of density focusing will be transmitted beam deflection measurements. The electron source will be biased to inject a probe beam through the trap center, and this will then be imaged on a phosphor screen outside the trap.},
 author = {Mitchell, T. B. and Holzscheiter, M. H. and Schauer, M. M. and Scudder, D. W. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 title = {PFX---The Penning fusion experiment},
 urldate = {10/16/2023},
 pages = {113--117},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1063/1.47883}
}


@article{Mitchell.1997,
 abstract = {We produce simultaneously dense and well-confined nonneutral plasmas by spherical focusing. A small (3 mm radius) Penning trap has low-energy electrons injected at a single pole of the sphere. Precisely when the trap parameters are adjusted to produce a spherical well, the system self-organizes into a spherical state through a bootstrapping mechanism which produces a hysteresis. Additional confirmation of the dense spherical focus is provided by electrons scattered by the central core. Core densities up to 35 times the Brillouin density have been inferred from the data. {\copyright} 1997 The American Physical Society.},
 author = {Mitchell, T. B. and Schauer, M. M. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Observation of spherical focus in an electron penning trap},
 pages = {58--61},
 volume = {78},
 number = {1},
 issn = {00319007},
 journal = {Physical Review Letters},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.58}
}


@phdthesis{Mohanty.2019,
 author = {Buzarbaruah, N.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {A neutron source based on the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion scheme and its applications},
 url = {http://hdl.handle.net/10603/284942},
 school = {{Gauhati University}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Mohanty.2021,
 abstract = {Tabletop and compact fusion sources are in much demand because of their efficiency in producing mono- energetic particles that find application in various societal usages. Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) based source, in particular, stands as one of the vital sources for producing neutrons, protons, X-rays, etc. The most promising applications of the device include neutron activation analyses (NAA), neutron radiography, medical isotope production, explosive detection, etc. IECF is basically a fusion concept wherein the lighter fuel ions (deuterium, tritium) are trapped in a converging electrostatic field inside a cylindrical or spherical geometry. A cylindrical IECF device is in operation at our center and it has been emitting a copious amount of 2.45?MeV DD fusion neutrons. The device primarily consists of a cylindrical wire grid electrode assembly housed inside a cylindrical vacuum chamber, a gas insertion system, a high voltage feedthrough, and a high voltage power supply of negative polarity. On the application of a high negative potential of few tens of kV ({\~{}}80?kV) to the inner grid of the device, the energetic ions overcome the coulomb barrier force and thus fuse together to produce neutrons of the order 106 n s-1. The emitted neutrons from the device are characterized by employing various detectors such as neutron area monitor, He-3 proportional counter, bubble dosimeters etc. The neutrons emitted from the device were utilized for the detection of explosive. The detailed results are discussed in the paper. {\copyright} 2021 Author(s).},
 author = {Mohanty, S. R. and Buzarbaruah, N. and Bhattacharjee, D. and Jigdung, D.},
 title = {Basics of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion and its applications},
 volume = {2319},
 publisher = {{AIP Publishing}},
 editor = {{Tou T.-Y.} and {Shukor R.A.} and {Yokoyama J.} and {Tanaka K.} and {Choi H.J.} and {Matsumoto R.} and {Chin O.-H.} and {Chin J.H.} and {Ratnavelu K.}},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 14th Asia-Pacific Physics Conference},
 year = {2021},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0037011}
}


@inproceedings{Momota.1999,
 author = {Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Virtual Well Formation in a Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 pages = {596--597},
 volume = {44},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Momota.1999b,
 author = {Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Virtual Cathode in a Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement},
 pages = {95--102},
 editor = {Goto, S. and Yoshimura, S.},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of The US-Japan Workshop and The Satellite Meeting of ITC-9 on Physics of High Beta Plasma Confinement in Innovative Fusion System, NIFS-PROC-41},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Momota.2000,
 author = {Momota, Hiromo and Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H.},
 title = {Direct energy conversion for IEC fusion for space applications},
 booktitle = {36th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {2000},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2000-3609}
}


@misc{Momota.2000b,
 author = {Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H. and Nadler, Jonathan H.},
 date = {2000},
 title = {Direct Energy Conversion for IEC Fusion for Space Applications (Research Report NIFS Series)},
 number = {NIFS-641},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@article{Momota.2001,
 abstract = {{\textquotedbl}Double-well{\textquotedbl} potential structure (virtual cathode formation) is studied in a spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (SIEC) device using non-linear Poisson's equation. Particle densities are derived from a kinetic equation equivalent to Vlasov's equation. Velocities of collision-free electrons and ions at the edge of the configuration will be almost aligned towards the center, however, they have small divergences. Analyses show appearance of a virtual cathode potential well relevant to bum fusion fuels near the center of SEC.},
 author = {Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Virtual cathode in a spherical inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035269939&doi=10.13182%2ffst01-a11963285&partnerID=40&md5=7c74bbdd43b839323d3d12eae4e5cd7c},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electrostatic devices;Fusion reactors;Nonlinear equations;Nuclear fuels;Plasma confinement;Poisson equation;Spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (SIEC) devices;Vlasov's equation},
 pages = {498--503},
 volume = {39},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst01-a11963285}
}


@article{Momota.2001b,
 abstract = {{\textquotedbl}Double-well{\textquotedbl} potential structure (virtual cathode formation) is studied in a stationary spherical inertial electrostatic confinement (SIEC) using the nonlinear Poisson's equation and particle densities derived from kinetic theory. A novel method to obtain a spherically symmetric stationary distribution function is introduced and an integral-differential equation is simplified by applying a relevant approximated formula for an integral. Electron and ion beams are collision-free, and their velocities are roughly aligned toward the spherical center, but with a slight divergence. Analyses show that the angular momentum of ions and the smaller one of electrons create a virtual cathode, i.e., a double-well structure, of the electrostatic potential on a potential hill near the center. The density limit of an SIEC is exhibited, and the condition relevant to form a deep potential well is presented.},
 author = {Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Virtual cathode in a stationary spherical inertial electrostatic confinement},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0040487210&doi=10.13182%2fFST01-A180&partnerID=40&md5=212901d994eb65ee8358c7a5cc76de9a},
 keywords = {Density limit;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Kinetic equilibrium},
 pages = {56--65},
 volume = {40},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A180}
}


@inproceedings{Momota.2002,
 abstract = {The collimator-converter system extracts fusion power from D-3He fueled IEC devices and provides electricity needed to operate ionic thrusters and other-power components. The whole system is linear and consists of a series of collimator units at the center, magnetic expander units at both sides of the fusion units, followed by direct energy converters at both ends. This system is enclosed in a vacuum chamber with a magnetic channel provided by magnetic solenoids out of respective chambers. The fusion unit consists of an IEC fusion core, a pair of coils anti-parallel to the solenoid coils, and a stabilization coil that stabilizes the position of coil pair coils. The IEC fusion core is installed at the center of the pair coils. After the magnetic expander, velocities of fusion particles from D-3He fueled IEC units are directed to the magnetic channel, which guides energetic fusion particles as well as leaking unburned fuel components to a high-efficiency traveling wave direct energy converter (TWDEC). Leaking unburned fuel components are separated with a magnetic separator at the entrance of a direct energy converter and pumped out for further refueling. A TWDEC is made of an array of metallic meshed grids, each of which is connected to every terminal with an external transmission circuit. The transmission line couples to the direct energy converter. Substations for electricity, a cryogenic plant, and various power control systems are outside of the vacuum chamber. The length of the cylindrical system is essentially determined by the proton energy of 14.8 MeV and the radius should be large so as to reduce power flow density. The present system provides 250 MWf fusion power and converting it to 150 MWc electricity. Its size is 150 m(length)$\times$6.6 m(diameter) in size and 185 tons in weight.},
 author = {Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H.},
 title = {A collimator-converter system for IEC propulsion},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {834--844},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {2002},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1449809}
}


@article{Momota.2009,
 abstract = {A high-efficiency inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) neutron generator consists of linear IEC fusion chamber and ionization chambers at both ends, connected by an externally applied magnetic field. A pair of deuterium beams is produced in the ionization chambers that are positively biased so as to accelerate deuterium ions along the magnetic field towards the reaction chamber. For the purpose of achieving high-efficiency, the counter-streaming beam column is focused to form a thin filament. Such a configuration must avoid beam-driven instabilities such as the two-beam instability and Weibel's instability. The stability analysis is performed showing that these modes are stabilized by an externally applied magnetic field parallel to the ion beams. The required magnetic field is less than several of 0.1 Tesla. Thus highly efficient neutron generator is potentially possible with counter-streaming ion beams focused and stabilized by an external magnetic field. An example giving specifications for such a neutron generator is presented. {\copyright} 2008 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.},
 author = {Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Neutron source based on a counter-deuterium beam linear IEC},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-65049087404&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-008-9173-y&partnerID=40&md5=2586496496f63730b7fc3c50c455c941},
 keywords = {Applied magnetic fields;Atoms;Beam columns;Beam instabilities;Counter-streaming beam;Deuterium;Deuterium beams;Deuterium ions;Dispersion relation;Electrostatic generators;External magnetic fields;Fusion chambers;Fusion neutrons;High efficiencies;Inertial electrostatic confinements;ion beams;Ionization;Ionization chambers;Ions;Magnetic fields;Neutron beams;Neutron generator;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Quantum theory;Reaction chambers;Stability analysis;Thin filaments},
 pages = {191--194},
 volume = {28},
 number = {2 SPEC. ISS},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-008-9173-y}
}


@article{Motoyasu.2014,
 abstract = {Spatial distributions of the electric field were measured in inertial-electrostatic confinement plasmas generated in a glided cylindrical hollow cathode in He gas as a function of the applied voltage using laser-induced fluorescence polarization spectroscopy to obtain profiles of the potential and the charge density. With increasing applied voltage, the potential difference between the center of the plasma and the cathode decreased, while a virtual anode due to converging positive ions was clearly appeared at the center of the cathode. These are probably caused by the increase in the number of electrons emitted from the cathode surface due to the increasing ion bombardment with increasing applied voltage. {\copyright} 2014, The Korean Physical Society.},
 author = {Motoyasu, T. and Namba, S. and Takiyama, Ken},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Measurements of localized potential profiles by LIF polarization spectroscopy in an inertial-electrostatic confinement discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84920141834&doi=10.3938%2fjkps.65.1205&partnerID=40&md5=dd83f8e37d78a5ff866370c7502a8ab9},
 keywords = {Electric field;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Laser-induced fluorescence},
 pages = {1205--1208},
 volume = {65},
 number = {8},
 issn = {03744884},
 journal = {Journal of the Korean Physical Society},
 doi = {10.3938/jkps.65.1205}
}


@inproceedings{Murali.2002,
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Concept Based Fusion Propulsion System for Long-Range Missions Beyond the Heliopause},
 pages = {13},
 booktitle = {ANS Annual Meetings},
 year = {2002}
}


@phdthesis{Murali.2004,
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar},
 year = {2004},
 title = {Diagnostic study of steady state advanced fuel fusion in an IEC device},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Murali.2006,
 abstract = {New diagnostics are required to understand the physics operation of an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device. In an attempt to understand the fusion source regimes within the IEC device, a new diagnostic called the eclipse disk has been introduced. This diagnostic was used to exploit the byproduct protons' energy difference between the deuterium-deuterium (D-D) and deuterium-an isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron (D- He3) reactions to study the contributions of the protons generated from various source regimes. These source regimes are divided into five categories namely: converged core, embedded, beam background, volume, and wall-surface sources. The eclipse disk diagnostic has provided the first confirmed evidence that D- He3 reactions are predominantly embedded reactions. It has been observed that at the present operating power levels (6-10 kW) most of the D-D reactions occur in the volume of the chamber caused by the charge exchanged neutrals, and the converged core contribution is significant only for D-D reactions. Since the branching ratio for the proton and neutron generation in a D-D fusion reaction is $\sim$50{\%}, it is inferred that the proton to neutron count ratio is a better parameter to monitor than either proton or neutron counts measured alone while studying the source regimes. This parameter may also be used for studying the potential wells within the cathode grid. {\copyright} 2006 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Study of fusion regimes in an inertial electrostatic confinement device using the new eclipse disk diagnostic},
 keywords = {Branching ratio;Eclipse disk diagnostics;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device;Isotopes;Parameter estimation;Plasma confinement;Plasma diagnostics;Protons},
 volume = {13},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2200289}
}


@article{Murali.2008,
 abstract = {Experiments were performed to understand the dynamics of the ion flow in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device. This was done by monitoring the fusion rate as the symmetry of the grid was increased starting with a single loop all the way until the entire grid is constructed. The fusion rate was observed to increase with grid symmetry and eventually saturate. A single loop grid was observed to generate a cylindrical ($\sim$line) fusion source. The ion flow distribution was measured by introducing fine wires across a single loop of the grid in the form of a chord of a circle (chord wires). This study revealed that with increased symmetry of the cathode grid wires the convergence of the ions improves. The chord wires provided electrons for ionization even at low pressures ($\sim$6.67 mPa) and helped sustain the plasma. The impinging ions heat these wires locally and the temperature of the wires was measured using an infrared thermometer that was used to understand the ion flow distribution across the cathode grid. The presence of the grid wires seems to affect the fusion rate more drastically than previously thought (was assumed to be uniform around the central grid). Most of the fusion reactions were observed to occur in the ion microchannels that form in gaps between the cathode wires. This work helps understand the fusion source regimes and calibrate the IEC device. {\copyright} 2008 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Study of ion flow dynamics in an inertial electrostatic confinement device through sequential grid construction},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-58149232745&doi=10.1063%2f1.2961079&partnerID=40&md5=234d05146d617d512249c217d68165f2},
 keywords = {Cathode grid wires;Dynamics;Electrodynamics;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Grid constructions;Iec devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinements;Infrared thermometers;Ion flows;Ions;Low pressures;Plasmas;Single loops;Wire},
 volume = {15},
 number = {12},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2961079}
}


@article{Murali.2008b,
 abstract = {Recent study of fusion reactions within an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device revealed several significant modes of fusion: converged core, beamtarget, beam-background, and charge-exchange reactions. In an attempt to understand the fusion product proton measurements in the IEC device, the advanced fuel D-D and D-3He fusion proton energy spectra were analyzed. For D-3He fusion, the beam-target reactions were found to dominate. Hence, the present study focuses on understanding the beam-target reactions and the corresponding proton energy spectra from such sources. This information helps in accurately calculating the proton flux for optimizing medical isotope production and other near-term applications, besides calibration of the proton detectors. A proton detector was used to measure the experimental data and the Monte Carlo stopping power and range in matter (SRIM) simulation code was used to explain the corresponding experimental observations. While the D-D proton spectrum from the IEC device showed combined Doppler and scatter broadening, the D-3He proton spectrum, besides showing the broadening, also shows some interesting characteristics such as a high-energy tail and a detector thickness - dependent energy spectrum. An extended high-energy tail occurs in the observed energy spectrum from the detector because some of the protons go through the wire before being detected, which reduces their total energy. Due to the higher proton stopping power in the detector at somewhat lower energies than the initial 14.7 MeV, these protons thus deposit a larger fraction of their energy and create the high-energy tail. These measurements show that the high-energy tail of the proton energy spectrum should be excluded from the total proton counts for an accurate proton rate measurement.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Advanced fuels (D-D and D-3He) fusion proton energy distribution from an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-42349105276&doi=10.13182%2fFST08-A1739&partnerID=40&md5=dd048ed36292ee2de96709519f2631c0},
 keywords = {Charge-exchange reactions;Computer simulation;Deuterium;Fusion reactions;Helium-3;High energy physics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Monte Carlo methods;Proton energy distribution;Protons},
 pages = {841--853},
 volume = {53},
 number = {3},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST08-A1739}
}


@article{Murali.2009,
 abstract = {Theoretical study of ion microchannels that form in an inertial- electrostatic confinement (IEC) device has helped understand the behavior of ions of various energies within a microchannel and has also predicted that smaller grids produce a more converged core. However, such theoretical work has many limitations that make experimental work indispensable. In the present paper the experimental measurements of ion flow patterns into the cathode grid and their consequences (using a {\textquotedbl}chordwire{\textquotedbl} diagnostic that intercepts ions streaming into the IEC core) are reported. Experimental measurements also have quantified the interruption of the ion flow due to the adverse influence of the high voltage stalk. In addition, the chordwire arrangement can be used to study the radiation damage of materials. {\copyright} 2009 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Ion flux mapping in an inertial-electrostatic confinement device using a chordwire diagnostic},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-70350780546&doi=10.1063%2f1.3243932&partnerID=40&md5=5c2c984a81790b30b6d4d34b5f6620aa},
 keywords = {Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatics;Experimental measurements;Flow patterns;High voltage;Ion flow;Ion fluxes;Ions;Microchannels;Radiation damage;Theoretical study},
 volume = {16},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3243932}
}


@article{Murali.2009b,
 abstract = {Gridded Inertial Electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices are of interest due to their flexibility in burning advanced fuels, their tuning ability of the applied voltage to the reaction cross-section. Although this device is not suitable for power production in its present form, it does have several near term applications. The number of applications of this device increases with increasing fusion reactivity. These devices are simple to operate but are inherently complicated to understand and an effort to incrementally understand the device to improve its operational efficiency is underway at University of Wisconsin, Madison. Of all the parameters under study we are focusing on the effects of flow rate and flow ratio on the fusion reactivity in the present paper. Experiments were conducted to understand the influence of fuel flow ratio on the fusion reactions. The residual gas analyzer (RGA) was used to study the impurity concentration as the flow ratio was changed. It was observed that the higher flow rate resulted in reduced impurity levels and hence an increase in fusion rate. Several different species of gases were detected, some of these molecules formed inside the RGA analyzer. The flow ratio scan revealed that the optimum mixture of D2 with 3He to be D2: 3He::1:2 for maximum D-3He fusion rate. {\copyright} 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Study of fuel ratios on the fusion reactivity in an inertial electrostatic confinement device using a residual gas analyzer},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-67651253163&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-009-9193-2&partnerID=40&md5=89bf060557d94ba359f4aaea5ddde458},
 keywords = {Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Impurity concentration;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Operational efficiencies;Optimum mixtures;Power production;Reaction cross-section;Residual fuels;Residual gas analyzers;University of Wisconsin},
 pages = {314--322},
 volume = {28},
 number = {3},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-009-9193-2}
}


@article{Murali.2010,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices are compact sources of neutrons, protons, electrons, and x rays. Such sources have many applications. Improving the efficiency of the device also increases the applications of this device. Hence a thorough understanding of the operation of this device is needed. In this paper, we study the effect of chamber pressure on the temperature of the cathode. Experimentally, the grid temperature decreases as the chamber pressure increases; numerical simulations suggest that this is caused by the reduction of the hot ion current to the cathode as the pressure increases for constant power supply current. Such an understanding further supports the conclusion that the asymmetric heating of the cathode can be decreased by homogenizing the ion flow around the cathode. {\copyright} 2010 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Emmert, Gilbert A. and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Effects of chamber pressure variation on the grid temperature in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 keywords = {Asymmetric heating;Chamber pressure;Compact sources;Constant power;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Heating;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion currents;Ion flow;numerical simulation;Pressure effects;Pressure increase;Temperature decrease},
 volume = {17},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3484224}
}


@article{Murali.2010b,
 abstract = {Proton detection in an IEC device is a complicated task because, unlike the neutron detector, it has to be shielded from X-rays and electrons. Owing to the fusion proton's short range in matter the proton detectors are placed in the vacuum environment of the device. Also, the proton detectors are vulnerable to damage if exposed to excess light or electrons. The detector is shielded from the light using a Pb shield and, to reduce the electrons reaching the lead shield, a B-field is used. However the B-fields also influence the protons reaching the detector, and hence a good design for the magnet placement is required. In the present paper we investigate the effects of various B-field configurations on the proton detection. {\copyright} Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Effects of B-fields in the proton detection channel of an IEC device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77954762259&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-009-9243-9&partnerID=40&md5=7e3f7bca4ebf50a080d393a58ea109ec},
 keywords = {Acoustic noise measurement;B-fields;CASINO;Computer simulation;Detection channels;Detectors;Electric furnaces;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Lead;Monte Carlo methods;Monte carlo simulation;Noise reduction;Proton detector;Proton detectors;Protons;Vacuum environment},
 pages = {124--129},
 volume = {29},
 number = {2},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-009-9243-9}
}


@article{Murali.2010c,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) devices consist of nearly transparent, concentric grid electrodes that accelerate ions radially using voltage differences of 10-100s of kV. This paper investigates the effect of offsetting the inner grid with respect to the outer grid. Offsetting the grids changes the electric fields set up between the two grids and hence affects the ion flow into the cathode. Raising the cathode from the mean position has relatively more deteriorating effect than lowering it. In general, displacing the grids from the mean (concentric) condition seems to deteriorate the fusion reactivity. However, fine adjustments can be done to fine tune the fusion reactivity. The microchannels that form in IEC devices move with the cathode grid orientation. The shape and especially the locations of the microchannels are determined by the grid wire spacing of the cathode. New microchannels are also formed when the grid is offset, the region of maximum E-field, which is the direction in which the grid is moved, favors such microchannel formation. {\copyright} Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Effects of Displaced Grids on the Fusion Reactivity of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 keywords = {Displaced grids;E-field;Electric fields;Electric furnaces;Electrostatic devices;Fine adjustments;Grid electrodes;Grid orientation;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ion flow;Microchannels;Offset grids;Voltage difference;Wire spacing},
 pages = {256--260},
 volume = {29},
 number = {3},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-009-9266-2}
}


@article{Murali.2010d,
 abstract = {Recent work [S. Krupakar Murali, J. F. Santarius, and G. L. Kulcinski, Phys. Plasmas, 15, 122702, (2008)] indicates that fusion reactions in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device primarily occur in microchannels. Since microchannels form discretely all around the cathode, the proton calibration procedure necessitated the estimation of fusion reactivity within the microchannels. Unlike neutron detectors that see a point source, the proton detectors can follow the nonuniformities in the fusion source regime. Hence, the variation in microchannel distribution around the cathode has to be taken into account for independently calibrating a proton detector. Experiments were conducted to characterize the microchannels generated within an IEC device. A new calibration factor has been derived for specific grid geometry (5 latitudes and 12 longitudes) based on the experimental results. The new factor is 16{\%} lower than the previously used values. Moreover, the wild variation in the proton data by as much as 50{\%} between two measurements has been determined to be caused by the variation in grid orientation. It is suggested that for consistent proton measurements, the grid orientation with respect to the detector should be kept constant such that the least number of protons are detected by the proton detector. This not only prevents detector saturation, but also ensures that nonlinear effects in proton rate measurements are eliminated. {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Proton detector calibration in a gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78349307876&doi=10.1109%2fTPS.2010.2065244&partnerID=40&md5=0eca2b344d411a98de17069b674cf9c6},
 keywords = {Calibration;Calibration factors;Calibration procedure;Detectors;Electrostatics;Fusion power generation;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Grid orientation;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Microchannels;Nonlinear effect;Non-uniformities;Point sources;proton calibration;Proton detectors;Protons;Rate measurements},
 pages = {3116--3127},
 volume = {38},
 number = {11 PART 2},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2010.2065244}
}


@article{Murali.2010e,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement devices can generate secondary, thermionic, photo, and field emission electrons from the cathode grid, which is a drain on the system. Of the various electron emission contributions, methods to study and minimize the thermionic emission current are explored in this paper using a new diagnostic called chordwire - wire placed in the form of a chord of a circle inside the cathode that intercepts particles. This chordwire intercepts particles and gets heated; the rise in temperature can be monitored externally using a pyrometer. Local power balance on the chordwires can then be used to infer the particle flux reaching the chordwires. This diagnostic helps show that to accurately estimate the ion current reaching the central grid, the thermionic electron emission has to be taken into account. The thermionic emission could become significant even for low power operation ( {\textless}10kW) in the presence of asymmetric grid heating. The asymmetric grid heating can be mitigated by homogenizing the ionization source around the chamber. The ionrecirculation current equation has been updated to accommodate the thermionic emission current. This ionrecirculation current equation shows that while the electron current increases nonlinearly with the power-supply current (when the grid is thermionically active for input power that is {\textgreater}10kW), the ion current increases only in a less-than-linear fashion. Hence, the scaling of the fusion productivity with the power-supply current appears to be less than linear. Material selection and device operation should be aimed at reducing this electron energy drain for optimum performance. The overall thermionic emission from the cathode could be reduced through the selection of appropriate grid material with high work function (e.g., Re and W-25{\%}Re). Moreover, this material also has lower sputter yield relative to Type 304 stainless steel, thus helping in high-voltage operation of the device.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Study of thermionic electrons in an inertial electrostatic confinement device using a novel {\textquotedbl}chordwire{\textquotedbl} diagnostic},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77952643054&doi=10.13182%2fFST10-A9471&partnerID=40&md5=1b3e3384bce5034b0340a3a997a63502},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Chordwire diagnostic;Electric power transmission networks;Electrodes;Electron emission;Electron energy levels;Electrons;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Field emission cathodes;Field emission displays;High-voltage operation;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Power supply current;Stainless steel;Thermionic electron emission;Thermionic emission;Thermionic emission current;Type 304 stainless steel},
 pages = {281--291},
 volume = {57},
 number = {3},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST10-A9471}
}


@article{Murali.2010f,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices are compact sources of neutrons, protons, electrons and X-rays. Such sources have many applications. Improving the efficiency of the device also increases the number of applications of this device. Hence a thorough understanding of the operation of this device is needed. In this paper we study the various modes in which an IEC device can be operated. The device seems to perform better when RF power is used. Furthermore, the amount of current that the power source can drive at a given pressure and grid voltage is dependent on the frequency applied to the grid-the higher the frequency the higher the cathode current. The device has been tested up to 320 kHz and the power supply current kept increasing up to this frequency. The higher limit was not reached by the present RF power supply. Another effect observed with the use of RF power is that the ionization source is more homogeneous relative to electron source ionization. This could mean that the heat load on the cathode is more evenly distributed. Such an even heat distribution would allow higher power operation. {\copyright} Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Study of various modes of operation of an IEC Device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77954759088&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-009-9246-6&partnerID=40&md5=7572ebc1f4279a7097f5e2bc7c5599f3},
 keywords = {Cathode currents;Compact sources;Electric furnaces;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Grid voltage;Heat distribution;Heat loads;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ionization;Ionization sources;Modes of operation;Particle detectors;Power operation;Power sources;Power supply current;RF ionization source;Rf-power},
 pages = {141--145},
 volume = {29},
 number = {2},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-009-9246-6}
}


@article{Murali.2010m,
 abstract = {Gridded inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices are of interest to the research community for their multiple near-term applications. The number of applications of an IEC device increases with increasing fusion reaction rate. However, all attempts to improve the fusion reactivity of the IEC device have resulted in a linear or less than linear response with the power supply current. This work is geared toward determining the reasons for the observed response of the IEC device. Such an understanding would help formulate new ways to improve the efficiency of the device. Experiments were conducted with single loop grids built from different materials (Re and W25{\%}Re) to study the electron emission from the cathode in an IEC device. A single loop grid produces a (similar to line) cylindrical fusion source and was used to study the electron emission from cathode. Electron emission from the cathode increases non-linearly due to the presence of multiple sources (secondary electron emission, field emission and photoemission), as a result of which the ion current increases in a less than linear fashion with the power supply current. The ion recirculation current equation has been updated to accommodate various electron contributions. Several techniques to mitigate the electron emission from the cathode are suggested in this paper.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Consolidated electron emission effects in an IEC device},
 keywords = {Confinement;DENSITY;EQUILIBRIUM;Fusion;INCIDENT-ANGLE DEPENDENCE;Metals;PENNING  TRAP;Plasma;POTENTIAL-WELL;SECONDARY ELECTRONS},
 volume = {19},
 number = {4},
 issn = {09630252},
 journal = {Plasma Sources Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1088/0963-0252/19/4/045029}
}


@article{Murali.2011,
 abstract = {Gridded inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices interest fusion researchers owing to their ability to burn advanced fusion fuels and have many near-term applications. In these devices, a high voltage (10180 kV) accelerates ions radially between nearly transparent electrodes in spherical or cylindrical geometry. In this paper, we report experiments that study fusion reactions within the microchannels formed between the wires of the nearly transparent IEC cathode grid. Fusion proton counts were measured while sweeping the microchannels across a proton detector by rotating the central cathode grid with respect to the detector. The observed proton counts increased or decreased in correspondence with the grid wire orientation with respect to the proton detector. The fusion reactions were thus inferred to be nonuniform around the central grid and primarily occurring in channels formed by the grid wire gaps. We interpret this effect as an indication that most ions and charge-exchanged neutrals traverse radially along these microchannels. The grid wires will also shadow fusion reactions taking place at radii smaller than the cathode radius. Both the microchannels and the grid-wire shadowing causes the proton counts to vary, in measurements presented herein, by as much as 45{\%}. We explore whether these effects could have played a role in previous research that reported potential-well structures. {\copyright} 2010 IEEE.},
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Effects of the cathode grid wires on fusion proton measurements in inertial-electrostatic confinement devices},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-79951676871&doi=10.1109%2fTPS.2010.2090542&partnerID=40&md5=b104955ec2c0087f33aa2d475d665600},
 keywords = {Advanced fusion;Calibration;Cathode grid wires;Cylinders (shapes);cylindrical geometry;Detectors;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Grid rotation;High voltage;In-channels;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Microchannels;Neutrons;Nonuniform;Nuclear energy;nuclear fusion;proton calibration;Proton detectors;Protons;Rotation;Transparent electrode;Well structure;Wire},
 pages = {749--755},
 volume = {39},
 number = {2},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2010.2090542}
}


@patent{Murali.20120911,
 author = {Murali, Subramanian Krupakar},
 year = {2012/09/11},
 title = {SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR ACCELERATING PARTICLES},
 url = {https://lens.org/163-675-452-153-216},
 number = {WO 2013/038335 A2}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.1990,
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Hochberg, T. and Gu, Y. and Barnouin, Olivier and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Design of the University of Illinois Intertial-Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Device},
 pages = {2138},
 volume = {35},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1990}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.1991,
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Hochberg, T. and Gu, Y. and Barnouin, Olivier and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Advantages of Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Fusion},
 pages = {850--857},
 publisher = {{Taylor {\&} Francis}},
 isbn = {0748-1896},
 booktitle = {Fusion Technology},
 year = {1991},
 doi = {10.13182/FST91-A11946948}
}


@article{Nadler.1992,
 abstract = {There is considerable demand in the scientific community for a neutron generator with an output of 105-106 n/s that can be turned on or off, emits fusion neutrons, is self-calibrating, and can offer portable operation [1,2]. This paper will describe how an IEC-based neutron generator could satisfy these demands. Experimental data and modeling is presented for operation to the 105 n/s range. Direct extrapolation of the results indicate that with modest extension of operating parameters operation can be achieved in the 106-107 n/s range; with more aggressive modifications operation in the 108-10 n/s range can be possible.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H. and Gu, Yibin B. and Hochberg, Timothy A.},
 year = {1992},
 title = {Characterization of an inertial-electrostatic confinement glow discharge (IECGD) neutron generator},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0026862613&doi=10.13182%2ffst92-a29955&partnerID=40&md5=a36a1b7d520455132b11290caa02dd5e},
 keywords = {Inertial confinement fusion;Neutron generator;Neutrons},
 pages = {1639--1643},
 volume = {21},
 number = {3 pt 2A},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst92-a29955}
}


@article{Nadler.1992b,
 abstract = {A collimated proton detector has been developed for spatial resolved proton measurements in inertial--electrostatic plasma confinement (IEC) fusion experiments. These are the first proton measurements used to infer potential well profiles on an IEC device. This paper describes a new technique for investigating the existence of multiple potential wells inside IEC devices. Analysis of the observed proton energy and source profile indicates that (for a 12--mA cathode current, a 30--kV cathode voltage in a 4--mTorr D2 background) predominantly beam--background fusion occurs. Computer simulation suggests that a positive space charge potential approximately half that of the applied voltage is formed inside the cathode. These results establish the first measurement of a positive potential well structure inside an ion--injected IEC device.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Gu, Y. B. and Miley, G. H.},
 year = {1992},
 title = {Potential profile measurements using a collimated proton detector in spherical inertial--electrostatic plasma confinement},
 pages = {4810--4812},
 volume = {63},
 number = {10},
 issn = {00346748},
 journal = {Review of Scientific Instruments},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1143844}
}


@phdthesis{Nadler.1992c,
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H.},
 year = {1992},
 title = {Space-Charge Dynamics and Neutron Generation in an Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.1994,
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Yoon, W. Y. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {The IEC Neutron Generator and Filter Concept for Neutron Capture Therapy},
 pages = {393--398},
 publisher = {{New York: Plenum}},
 booktitle = {Neutron Capture Therapy for Cancer: Proc. 6th International Symposium},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.1995,
 abstract = {This paper assess the capabilities of existing computer models for Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) systems in both the glow discharge mode of operation and the low-pressure, multiple-grid systems. A comparison is made of the present computer simulations of generic IEC devices to today's running gridded-IEC experiments, based on assumptions used in the models to the physical parameters of the experiments. The pros and cons of such an approach is argued, and a list of critical parameters for a more realistic solution is offered. In addition, an alternate approach to developing a self-consistent model for these modes of operation with gridded systems is proposed.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Knoll, D. A.},
 title = {Assessment of existing IEC models and a proposed new approach for modeling gridded systems},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0029453650&partnerID=40&md5=71bff31bfe9b9b48b4b613de19c752d3},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Computer simulation;Deuterium;Electric fields;Electron emitter;Glow discharges;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ions;Mathematical models;Multiple gridded system;Neutron sources;Tritium},
 urldate = {1 October 1995 through 5 October 1995},
 pages = {1472--1475},
 booktitle = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1995.534503}
}


@incollection{Nadler.1996,
 abstract = {This paper describes a neutron generator based on the inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) of high energy deuterium ions, and the possible applications of such a generator to neutron capture therapy (NCT). An IEC generator has been under development at the University of Illinois for several years,1,2 and a recent paper has introduced the IEC neutron generator for NCT applications.3 This paper will present a neutron moderator configuration and some preliminary design calculations of resultant neutron energy spectra.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Yoon, W. Y. and Miley, G. H.},
 title = {The IEC Neutron Generator and Filter Concept for Neutron Capture Therapy},
 pages = {393--398},
 publisher = {{Springer US}},
 isbn = {978-1-4757-9567-7},
 editor = {Mishima, Yutaka},
 booktitle = {Cancer Neutron Capture Therapy},
 year = {1996},
 address = {Boston, MA},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-4757-9567-7{\textunderscore }55}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.1998,
 abstract = {Recent experimental results suggest the possible use of an Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement (EC) device as a low-power, high specific impulse satellite thruster. An EC device, when operating in what has been coined {\textquotedbl}Halo mode,{\textquotedbl} produces a unique plasma jet that could be used as a highly efficient source of 5- keV mono-energetic ions. If operated with heavy, noble gases this device could provide efficient, high specific impulse. This paper describes the results of the initial characterization studies of the EC in Halo mode. A series of experiments was conducted on an EC device with a 30-cm diameter vacuum vessel, and a 6.4-cm diameter cathode-grid with a 1.9-cm hole constructed on one side. Consistent, stable operation was observed for both argon and hydrogen gas over a wide range of pressures and voltages, producing a single jet out of the enlarged hole. A number of voltage vs. current curves were made for a bias post that was placed in the path of the plasma jet. Analysis concludes that the plasma jet has a sufficient electron population suitable for generating a substantial ion jet. {\copyright} 1998 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Yoder, E. D. and Hunsicker, C. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Experimental investigation of unique plasma jets for use as ion thrusters},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84964818070&doi=10.2514%2f6.1998-2570&partnerID=40&md5=865bf407b6c9cdefe1e85621a5dbf54e},
 keywords = {Characterization studies;Electrochromic devices;Electron population;Experimental investigations;High specific impulse;Inert gases;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion engines;Ions;Magnetohydrodynamics;Plasma jets;Satellite thrusters;Stable operation;Vacuum vessel},
 booktitle = {29th AIAA, Plasmadynamics and Lasers Conference},
 year = {1998},
 doi = {10.2514/6.1998-2570}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.1999,
 abstract = {Recent advances in pulsed power supply technology has allowed the Star Mode Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) to pulse to high currents, 17 A, at a peak voltage of 50 kV, and a pulse width of 100 \textgreek{m}s at a frequency of 10 Hz. These results represent an increase in cathode currents of three orders of magnitude over steady state sources. Neutron production at the peak of the pulse was found to be approx. 109 n/s of D-D neutrons. This increase in pulsed current operation, and corresponding linear scaling of fusion reaction rates, represents a significant step forward in the development of IEC controlled fusion. An 'effective-Q' of this operation was calculated to be 6 $\times$ 10-5. Analysis of IEC operation at higher current indicates that breakeven, with an effective-Q of 1.0, might be reached with additional increase in cathode current of only approx. 2 orders of magnitude.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H. and Coventry, Matt and Williams, M. and Jurczyk, Brian E. and Stubbers, Robert A. and Nam, Y.},
 title = {High-current pulsed operation of an inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0033296772&partnerID=40&md5=8f3610f073d14f8d8c8b52b21c1a20d1},
 keywords = {Capacitors;Cathode current;Electric currents;Electric power supplies to apparatus;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;High current pulsed operation;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device;Ions;Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Plasma devices},
 urldate = {25 October 1999 through 29 October 1999},
 pages = {209--212},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1999.849821}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.1999b,
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H. and Hrbud, I.},
 title = {Applications of Inertial Elctrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion for Space Propulsion and Power},
 pages = {GM2.02},
 volume = {41},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {1999}
}


@misc{Nadler.1999c,
 abstract = {An Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device was assembled at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Propulsion Research Center (PRC) to study the possibility of using IEC technology for deep space propulsion and power. Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement is capable of containing a nuclear fusion plasma in a series of virtual potential wells. These wells would substantially increase plasma confinement, possibly leading towards a high-gain, breakthrough fusion device. A one-foot in diameter IEC vessel was borrowed from the Fusion Studies Laboratory at the University of Illinois @ Urbana-Champaign for the summer. This device was used in initial parameterization studies in order to design a larger, actively cooled device for permanent use at the PRC.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H.},
 date = {1999},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion For Space Propulsion},
 url = {https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19990103080},
 number = {19990103080},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@misc{Nadler.1999d,
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H.},
 date = {1999},
 title = {A Breakthrough Fusion Power Unit for Space Applications. Final Report for NASA SBIR Contract {\#}NAS8-99044},
 number = {98-1 04.02-3772},
 institution = {{NPL Associates}}
}


@inproceedings{Nadler.2000b,
 abstract = {The continued exploration of deep space requires the use of a propulsion system that will operate for extended periods of time at higher power levels, and must have a high thrust to mass ratio. A space vessel powered by a D-3He IEC system would meet these needs as well as requirements regarding minimal neutron radiation levels. Prior conceptual design studies have established the attractive features of a space propulsion and power source based on Inertial- Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion. A principal development goal for IEC experiments is to obtain improved ion trapping in the inner potential well, thereby increasing gain. The primary method of increasing ion confinement is the maximization of the size (both breadth and depth) of the negative virtual cathode inside the IEC grid. Increasing cathode current and reducing background charge exchange are key stepping stones toward this goal. Conversion of the present gridded device to use an auxiliary ion source allows a significant reduction in pressure by avoiding the Paschen breakdown curve requirement and will provide a larger number of charge carriers to meet the higher current needs. {\copyright} 2000 by Jon H. Nadler. Published by the American institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H. and Coventry, Matt and Nam, Y. and Hammond, Walter E.},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion for space propulsion and power},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84896486731&partnerID=40&md5=bdfbea8894bc716393c5eab589c23c1b},
 keywords = {Cathode currents;Cathodes;Charge exchanges;Charge transfer;Conceptual design;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Ion confinements;Ion sources;Neutron radiations;Propulsion system;Space propulsions;Spacecraft propulsion;Virtual cathodes},
 booktitle = {36th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit},
 year = {2000}
}


@article{Nadler.2000c,
 abstract = {Concept Studies have shown the IEC to be one of the most attractive approaches to fusion propulsion, provided the ph sics and technology involved can be scaled-up to high power levels. A kev step involves development of a pulsed IEC that can obtain high ion currents along with good ion confinement. Results from initial pulsed IEC experiments are described here. The obtainment of a D-B fusion neutron yield of 8 x 10(s) n/s at a peak pulse current of 17 A demonstrates that the dynamic formation of the required accelerating fields with the IEC discharge is possible. A nest step involves improvement in confinement.},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H. and Coventry, Matt and Momota, Hiromu},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Recent advances in inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion for space power and propulsion},
 pages = {1224--1229},
 volume = {504},
 issn = {0094-243X},
 journal = {Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry}
}


@article{Nadler.2001,
 abstract = {Experiments at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) are exploring high current operation in a gridded, Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device. Until recently all IEC operation has been done at relatively low currents. Calculations indicate that much higher voltages and higher currents are needed to form deep potential wells as required ultimately for reactor applications. Recent experiments have achieved 8$\times$108n/s at peak of 100 microsecond pulses at a cathode-grid potential of 50 kV and 17 amps of current (vs. kA currents projected for a power reactor).},
 author = {Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Shaban, Yasser R. and Nam, Y. and Coventry, Matt},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Neutron production and ionization efficiency in a gridded iec device at high currents},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035269275&doi=10.13182%2ffst01-a11963284&partnerID=40&md5=6ee79e62928e0d57ccddd1102238538c},
 keywords = {Electric currents;Electrostatic devices;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices;Ionization;Neutron sources;Nuclear reactors;Plasma confinement},
 pages = {492--497},
 volume = {39},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst01-a11963284}
}


@inproceedings{Nakagawa.2008,
 author = {Nakagawa, Tomoya and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Nagasaki, Kazunobu},
 title = {Development of a Ring-shaped Magnetron Ion Source for an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2008},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2008f.0.881.0}
}


@inproceedings{Nakagawa.2009,
 author = {Nakagawa, Tomoya and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Zen, Heishun and Kajiwara, Taiju},
 title = {Low Pressure Operation on an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device with Magnetron Ion Source},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2009s.0.617.0}
}


@inproceedings{Nanjo.2014,
 author = {Nanjo, Kazuki and Kashiwagi, Kouhei and Sekiguchi, Toshihiro and Ngamdee, Wantapon and Watanabe, Masato and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {A Study of Cusp Magnetic Field Effect on IEC Device},
 booktitle = {Plasma2014},
 year = {2014}
}


@proceedings{NASAOfficeofSpaceAccessandTechnology.1997,
 year = {1997},
 title = {Seventh Advanced Space Propulsion Research Workshop},
 institution = {{NASA Office of Space Access and Technology}}
}


@phdthesis{Navarro.2018,
 author = {Navarro, M.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Helium and Deuterium Ions in Tungsten Surfaces},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1992,
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Turner, L. and Bussard, Robert W. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Studies},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the International Sherwood Fusion Theory Conference},
 year = {1992}
}


@article{Nebel.1992b,
 author = {Nebel, Richard A.},
 year = {1992},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Studies},
 volume = {37},
 number = {1582},
 issn = {0003-0503},
 journal = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1994,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) is one of the earliest plasma confinement concepts, having first been suggested by P. T. Farnsworth in the 1950's. The concept involves a simple apparatus of concentric spherical electrostatic grids or a combination of grids and magnetic fields. An electrostatic structure is formed from the confluence of electron or ion beams. Gridded IEC systems have demonstrated neutron yields as high as 2 x 10(exp 10) neutrons/sec. These systems have considerable potential as small, inexpensive, portable neutron sources for assaying applications. Neutron tomography is also a potential application. Atomic physics effects strongly influence the performance of all of these systems. Important atomic effects include elastic scattering, ionization, excitation, and charge exchange. This paper discusses how an IEC system is influenced by these effects and how to design around them. Theoretical modeling and experimental results are presented.},
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Turner, L. and Tiouririne, T. N. and Barnes, Daniel C. and Nystrom, W. D. and Bussard, Robert W. and Miley, G. H. and Javedani, J. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) devices},
 keywords = {charge exchange;Electrostatics;excitation;Ionization;Neutron sources;Particle beams;Plasma Control;Plasma physics},
 booktitle = {Nondestructive Assay and Nondestructive Examination Waste Characterization Conference},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1995b,
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Barnes, Daniel C. and Caramana, E. J. and Janssen, R. D. and Nystrom, W. D. and Tiouririne, T. N. and Trent, B. C. and Miley, George H. and Javedani, Jalal B.},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) neutron sources},
 pages = {1229--1231},
 booktitle = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1995.534448}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1995d,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) is one of the earliest plasma confinement concepts, having first been suggested by P. T. Farnsworth in the 1950s. The concept involves a simple apparatus of concentric spherical electrostatic grids or a combination of grids and magnetic fields. An electrostatic structure is formed from the confluence of electron or ion beams.Gridded IEC systems have demonstrated neutron yields as high as 2*1010 neutron/sec. These systems have considerable potential as small, inexpensive, portable neutron sources for assaying applications. Neutron tomography is also a potential application.Atomic physics effects strongly influence the performance of all of these systems. Important atomic effects include elastic scattering, ionization, excitation, and charge exchange. This paper discusses how an IEC system is influenced by these effects and how to design around them. Theoretical modeling and experimental results are presented.},
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Turner, L. and Tiouririne, T. N. and Barnes, Daniel C. and Nystrom, W. D. and Bussard, Robert W. and Miley, G. H. and Javedani, J. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Atomic processes in inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) devices},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {149--157},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1063/1.47076}
}


@misc{Nebel.1997,
 author = {Nebel, Richard A.},
 date = {1997},
 title = {The Los Alamos Intense Neutron Source},
 number = {LA-UR 97-1512},
 institution = {{Los Alamos National Lab}}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1997b,
 author = {Nebel, Richard A.},
 title = {The Los Alamos Intense Neutron Source},
 pages = {503--504},
 booktitle = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 year = {1997}
}


@article{Nebel.1998,
 abstract = {A new method of operating an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device is proposed, and its performance is evaluated. The scheme involves an oscillating thermal cloud of ions immersed in a bath of electrons that form a harmonic oscillator potential. The scheme is called the periodically oscillating plasma sphere, and it appears to solve many of the problems that may limit other IEC systems to low gain. A set of self-similar solutions to the ion fluid equations is presented, and plasma performance is evaluated. Results indicate that performance enhancement of gridded IEC systems such as the Los Alamos intense neutron source device is possible as well as high-performance operation for low-loss systems such as the Penning trap experiment. Finally, a conceptual idea for a massively modular Penning trap reactor is also presented.},
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {The periodically oscillating plasma sphere},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0032142116&doi=10.13182%2fFST98-A51&partnerID=40&md5=f135309800d53048686545356851482a},
 keywords = {Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Penning trap reactors;Penning traps;Plasma confinement;Plasma oscillations;Thermal clouds},
 pages = {28--45},
 volume = {34},
 number = {1},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST98-A51}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1999,
 abstract = {The Intense Neutron Source (INS) is an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion device [1] presently under construction at Los Alamos National Laboratory. It is designed to produce 1011 neutrons per second steady-state and will be used for nuclear assay applications. This device is a three grid IEC ion focus device. It is designed to handle 25 kW of power input and is actively cooled. It has a maximum capability of 75 kV with a current of .335 Amperes. In this paper we describe the physics principles of operation of this device, the engineering design parameters, and the empirical scaling used to determine the design parameters. Potential applications include waste assay, landmine detection, nonproliferation, and high-explosives detection.},
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Cole, A. J. and Pickrell, M. M. and Umstadter, K. R.},
 title = {Innovative energy sources and advanced applications: the Los Alamos intense neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0033296149&partnerID=40&md5=3e9ac918f7e29aaf42caf0ec74e30841},
 keywords = {Electrons;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Intense neutron source;ion beams;Neutron sources;Nuclear energy;Plasma confinement},
 urldate = {25 October 1999 through 29 October 1999},
 pages = {31--34},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1999b,
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Barnes, Daniel C. and Bollman, R. and Eden, G. and Morrison, L.},
 title = {The Los Alamos Intense Neutron Source},
 pages = {411--425},
 publisher = {{NRC Research Press}},
 editor = {Planarella, Emilio},
 booktitle = {Current Trends in International Fusion Research: Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium},
 year = {1999}
}


@inproceedings{Nebel.1999c,
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Finn, J. M.},
 title = {Kinetic Calculation for POPS},
 pages = {596},
 volume = {44},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1999}
}


@article{Nebel.2000,
 abstract = {Previous work [D. C. Barnes and R. A. Nebel, Phys. Plasmas 5, 2498 (1998)] has demonstrated the existence of a one-dimensional self-similar oscillating ion solution which remains in local thermodynamic equilibrium at all times during an oscillation in a harmonic oscillator potential. Here it is shown that all spherically symmetric distributions, in which x, y, and z are independent, are of this form. However, in a real device the density profile will be truncated due to the presence of a wall or conductor. Particle simulations of these truncated profiles are presented and compared with the idealized solutions in the proper limits. Results are also interpreted in terms of rigid rotor rotation in phase space as is appropriate for a harmonic oscillator. Next, it is demonstrated that the deviations from Maxwellian velocity distributions that are observed when the plasma contracts will be quickly rethermalized during the expansion phase. Energy throughput resulting from this rethermalization is discussed.},
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Finn, J. M.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Kinetic and fluid calculations for the periodically oscillating plasma sphere},
 pages = {839--843},
 volume = {7},
 number = {3},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.873880}
}


@article{Nebel.2001,
 abstract = {Recent theoretical work [R. A. Nebel and D. C. Barnes, Fusion Technol. 38, 28 (1998); D. C. Barnes and R. A. Nebel, Phys. Plasmas 5, 2498 (1998)] has suggested that a tiny oscillating ion cloud (referred to as the periodically oscillating plasma sphere or POPS) may undergo a self-similar collapse that can result in the periodic and simultaneous attainment of ultrahigh densities and temperatures. However, a major uncertainty in this plasma system is the behavior of the electron cloud that forms a virtual cathode. Here it is demonstrated that the required electron cloud (which forms a harmonic oscillator potential) is susceptible to an instability related to buoyancy-driven modes present in compressible fluids. Although it is demonstrated that no absolutely stable profiles with uniform electron density exist, stable profiles that are close to the required harmonic oscillator potential are found. A simple two-stream analysis indicates that kinetic effects lead to a critical limit in \textgreek{l}D/a above which the virtual cathodes are stable. This result is consistent with previous experimental observations.},
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Finn, J. M.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Fluid and kinetic stability of virtual cathodes for the periodically oscillating plasma sphere},
 pages = {1505--1513},
 volume = {8},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1363664}
}


@article{Nebel.2005,
 abstract = {This paper explores the electron-electron two-stream stability limit of a virtual cathode in spherical geometry. Previous work using a constant density slab model [R. A. Nebel and J. M. Finn, Phys. Plasmas 8, 1505 (2001)] suggested that the electron-electron two-stream would become unstable when the well depth of the virtual cathode was 14{\%} of the applied voltage. However, experimental tests on INS-e have achieved virtual cathode fractional well depths $\sim$60{\%} with no sign of instability. Here, studies with a spherical gridless particle code indicate that fractional well depths greater than 90{\%} can be achieved without two-stream instabilities. Two factors have a major impact on the plasma stability: whether the particles are reflected and the presence of angular momentum. If the particles are reflected then they are guaranteed to be in resonance with the electron plasma frequency at some radius. This can lead to the two stream instabilities if the angular momentum is small. If the angular momentum is large enough it stabilizes the instability much the same way as finite temperature stabilizes the two-stream instability in a slab. {\copyright} 2005 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Nebel, Richard A. and Stange, S. and Park, J. and Taccetti, J. M. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Garcia, C. E.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Theoretical and experimental studies of kinetic equilibrium and stability of the virtual cathode in an electron injected inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-20444448505&doi=10.1063%2f1.1829296&partnerID=40&md5=231fe8b69015b17b7eecac3ea937b7a0},
 keywords = {Angular momentum;Boundary conditions;Carrier concentration;Cathodes;Computer simulation;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatic devices;Kinetic stability;Mathematical models;Plasma stability;Resonance;Virtual cathodes},
 pages = {1--8},
 volume = {12},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1829296}
}


@inproceedings{Negm.2015,
 abstract = {An active non-destructive detection system for special nuclear materials (SNMs) such as 235U has been developed for container inspection at sea ports. The SNMs can be detected by using nuclear resonance fluorescence (NRF) with a quasimonochromatic gamma-ray beam provided from a laser Compton Scattering (LCS) source. We have studied the optimum geometry for the detector array by Monte Carlo simulation code, GEANT4, which has been modified to take into account all physical processes in NRF. The simulation code has been checked by the experimental data taken in New-SUBARU and HIgS facility. NRF yield at different scattering angles were examined with different thickness of 235U target. The result shows that the backward angle is the optimum geometry for NRF detection in terms of NRF yield and S/N ratio caused by atomic scattering. Realistic simulation for a container cargo has been performed. Detector array of 100 LaBr3(Ce) detectors has been examined with 3 different size of crystals. Consequently, we can demonstrate the ability of the proposed inspection system.},
 author = {Negm, Hani Hussein and Ohgaki, Hideaki and Daito, Izuru and Hori, Toshitada and Kii, Toshiteru and Zen, Heishun and Hajima, Ryoichi and Hayakawa, Takehito and Shizuma, Toshiyuki and Fujimoto, Shinya},
 title = {Study on detector geometry for active non-destructive inspection system of SNMs by nuclear resonance fluorescence},
 url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7225324/},
 keywords = {detector geometry;GEANT4;LCS gamma-ray beam;NRF;SNM inspection system},
 pages = {1--5},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 booktitle = {2015 IEEE International Symposium on Technologies for Homeland Security (HST)},
 year = {2015},
 doi = {10.1109/THS.2015.7225324}
}


@article{Nevins.1995,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) systems are predicated on a nonequilibrium ion distribution function. Coulomb collisions between ions cause this distribution to relax to a Maxwellian on the ion-ion collisional time scale. The power required to prevent this relaxation and maintain the IEC configuration for times beyond the ion-ion collisional time scale is shown to be greater than the fusion power produced. It is concluded that IEC systems show little promise as a basis for the development of commercial electric power plants. {\copyright} 1995 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Nevins, W. M.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {Can inertial electrostatic confinement work beyond the ion-ion collisional time scale?},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0004588296&doi=10.1063%2f1.871080&partnerID=40&md5=2196c3d067f0680d9435a04ac347a3d7},
 pages = {3804--3819},
 volume = {2},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.871080}
}


@inproceedings{Ngamdee.2011,
 author = {Ngamdee, Wantapon and Takakura, Kei and Imaji, Hiroki and Nobe, Keita and Watanabe, Masato and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Effect of Ti rod cathode in a magnetic-assisted electrostatic confinement (MEC) fusion device},
 volume = {PST-11-120/PPT-11-121},
 booktitle = {Joint Technical Meeting on Plasma Science and Technology and Pulsed Power Technology},
 year = {2011}
}


@inproceedings{Nieto.2000,
 author = {Nieto, Martin and Momota, Hiromu and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Use of an IEC Device as a Proton Beam Source},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ICONE 8},
 year = {2000}
}


@inproceedings{Nishi.2006,
 author = {Nishi, Tetsuya and Yoneda, Kei and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Development of Electric Field Measurement Method by Excited Neutral Helium Pulse Beam},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2006f.0.780.0}
}


@article{Nishi.2007,
 abstract = {A 21 S metastable helium atomic beam injector was studied for a beam probe of electric field diagnoses, which is applicable to high electric potential region in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) plasmas where a solid probe can hardly be utilized. With deuterium background gas ($\sim$0.1Pa) which is the minimum operation pressure of the IECF devices, the beam density was found to decrease ten times lower than beam density without background gas because of collisional effect. Also, plasma parameters in a-magnetron-discharge-based exciter were evaluated by means of Langmuir probe and emission spectroscopy. These results strongly imply a high excitation rate of $\sim$10-4 into 21S metastable state.},
 author = {Nishi, T. and Yoneda, K. and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Development of excited helium beam injector for electric field measurement by laser-induced fluorescence method},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36249003403&doi=10.13182%2fFST07-A1636&partnerID=40&md5=e807bdb7f380fbebb85f530137daf149},
 keywords = {Atomic beam injector;Beam density;Beam probe;Density (optical);Electric field effects;Emission spectroscopy;Excited states;Fluorescence;helium;Langmuir probes;Laser fusion},
 pages = {1061--1065},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1636}
}


@article{Nishigaki.2011,
 author = {NISHIGAKI, Takuma and HONMA, Tadahiko and TOKIEDA, Takanori and ANDO, Mitsuo and SHIRAHATA, Seiya and {Duy Thong}, Nguyen and Taniuchi, Yasuyuki and Utsumi, Michiaki},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Study of neutron product regime in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device},
 url = {https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jsas/22/3+4/22_110219656/_article/-char/ja/},
 keywords = {d-d nuclear fusion;IEC;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron generator},
 pages = {38--41},
 volume = {22},
 number = {3+4},
 journal = {Journal of Advanced Science},
 doi = {10.2978/jsas.22.38}
}


@inproceedings{Nobe.2013,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device is a compact fusion proton/neutron source with an extremely simple configuration, high controllability, and hence high safety We notice that neutrons have really high biological effectiveness and aim to use the IECF device as an irradiation facility for a biological application One of problems in using an IECF device is variation in neutron production rate observed in long time operation We found that time dependency of NPR fluctuation is dependent on input power The experiment shows NPR fluctuation stops after 20 minutes of operation in case of input power of 1200 W (author)},
 author = {Nobe, Keita and Nanjo, Kazuki and Imaji, Hiroki and Ngamdee, Wantapon and Watanabe, Masato and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Study on long time operation of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device},
 url = {http://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:48037608},
 volume = {NIFS-PROC-93},
 booktitle = {Symposium on ``Physics and Application of Plasmas Based on Pulsed Power Technology''},
 year = {2013}
}


@inproceedings{Noborio.2003,
 abstract = {We have been developing a 1-D PIC simulation code of a spherical IECF (Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion) device. In a previous paper, we have included atomic processes between energetic particles and background gases, and showed mechanisms of IECF discharge. In this paper, we have investigated fusion reaction characteristics, especially these spatial distribution and dependence on gas pressure, using this code. It was found that NPR (Neutron Production Rate) dependence on pressure and discharge current obtained through simulation agreed with experimental results, though quantitatively there remain about 1.5 times difference. Spatial distribution of NPR through ion-background collision has peak value near the cathode and that through neutral-background collision distributes evenly. {\copyright}2003 IEEE.},
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Sakai, T. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Investigation of spatial distribution of neutron production rate and its dependency on pressure in spherical IECF by one-dimensional simulations},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-27644525157&partnerID=40&md5=2eada99a432aa05c2bd504bfb21e5bb2},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Computer simulation;Gas pressure;Glow discharges;Neutron production rate (NPR);Neutrons;One dimensional;One-dimensional simulations;Plasma confinement;Plasma theory;Pressure effects;Spatial distribution},
 urldate = {14 October 2003 through 17 October 2003},
 pages = {328--331},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 20th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering, 2003},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2003.1426650}
}


@article{Noborio.2005,
 abstract = {Using a 1-D particle code, we have analyzed characteristics of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion device with external ion source which is added to enable low pressure operation. When the pressure becomes low, though neutron yield decreases, the decreasing amount is less than estimated from the decrease in background (target) gas density and it is confirmed that ions are accelerated efficiently with little energy loss through charge-exchange collision with background gas at low pressure. And when the pressure is lower than 0.05Pa, almost all injected ions reach to the cathode and it is expected that applying high geometrical transparency enhances accumulation of ion and enlarges neutron yield.},
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Yamamoto, Y. and Konishi, S.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {One dimensional simulation of an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device at low gas pressure operation},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744368177&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A865&partnerID=40&md5=09da41dabf38037ca053d0677076d92e},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Density of gases;Electric field effects;Electric field strength;Electron impact ionization;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Impact ionization;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Integral equations;Ion sources;Particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation code;Pressure effects;Transparency},
 pages = {1280--1284},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A865}
}


@article{Noborio.2006,
 abstract = {Using a one-dimensional particle code, low pressure and large current discharge in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device has been simulated, and confinement level of ions and the neutron yield through beam-beam fusion have been investigated. From the calculation of low-pressure operation, it is clear that the averaged life span of ions is extended but converges to a value corresponding to the geometrical transparency of the cathode. Calculation of large current discharge (injecting D2 + current of 200 mA) can be carried out by applying the anode radius of 10 cm. The neutron yield through beam-beam reaction is insensitive to the pressure, but is higher than that through beam-background reaction at the pressure of 0.1 mPa or lower. {\copyright} 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Yamamoto, Y. and Ueno, Y. and Konishi, S. and {Shimizu A.} and {Ando T.} and {Akiba M.}},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Confinement of ions in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device and its influence on neutron production rate},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-32444446519&doi=10.1016%2fj.fusengdes.2005.09.013&partnerID=40&md5=41cd1f745d6793e8f2bc0506e1b66924},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric fields;Fusion reactors;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Neutron generator;Neutrons;Particle code},
 pages = {1701--1705},
 volume = {81},
 number = {8-14 PART B},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.09.013}
}


@inproceedings{Noborio.2006b,
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Konishi, Satoshi},
 title = {Evaluation of Neutron Production Rate through Fusion Reaction on Surface of Electrodes of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Neutron Source},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2006f.0.778.0}
}


@inproceedings{Noborio.2006c,
 abstract = {We have simulated an IECF (inertial electrostatic confinement fusion) device by developing and using a particle code. Because a virtual anode is built up at large current region, which decelerates ions and reduces neutron yield, suppression of this virtual anode by supply of electrons from an additional electrode inside the cathode has been tried in the simulations. The simulation results show that with increase of electron supply current, potential profile changes drastically and the neutron yield increases at a threshold value. Also the mechanism of the drastic change has been explained well.},
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Yamamoto, Y. and Ueno, Y. and Konishi, S.},
 title = {The potential profile and its influence on the neutron yield of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 keywords = {IECF;Neutron generator;Particle code},
 pages = {133--136},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st IEEE/NPS Symposium on Fusion Engineering SOFE 05},
 year = {2005}
}


@article{Noborio.2007,
 abstract = {The neutron production rate (NPR) through fusion reaction on the surface of electrode(s) of an IECF (Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion) device, which is expected to increase at low pressure, has been evaluated with a one dimensional simulation code and an experimental device. In the simulation, the NPR on the cathode and the anode has been evaluated individually as a function of pressure. The simulation results reveal that the NPR on the cathode increases at low pressure and that on the anodes increases at high pressure. In the experiment, titanium coated electrodes have been used in order to rise the adsorbed amount, and the results show same tendency along with the pressure as calculation results. And the maximum value increases 3 times by coating titanium.},
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Yamamoto, Y. and Konishi, S.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Neutron production rate of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device with fusion reaction on surface of electrodes},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36248956134&doi=10.13182%2fFST07-A1645&partnerID=40&md5=0721471a0dc2839e289cdab9efeb203b},
 keywords = {Coatings;Electrodes;Fusion reactions;High pressure;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Neutron production rate (NPR);Neutron sources;One dimensional;Pressure effects;Titanium},
 pages = {1105--1109},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1645}
}


@inproceedings{Noborio.2010,
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Kanagae, Tsuyoshi and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Konishi, Satoshi},
 title = {Improvement of neutron beam shape from a cylindrical discharge type fusion device by optimization of the electrode shape},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2010s.0.641.0}
}


@inproceedings{Noborio.2011,
 abstract = {A one dimensional PIC (particle-in-cell) MCC (Monte Carlo collision) code has been developed to simulate discharge type fusion neutron sources and IECF (inertial electrostatic confinement fusion) devices. The discharge characteristics and fusion reaction rate of single and double grid devices have been calculated for wide range gas pressure (10-4Pa - 4Pa). The results suggests that a) interspace between the chamber wall and the anode grid of double grid device supplies ions which assist sustainable glow discharge at lower pressures and b) surface reaction on the cathode is dominant at pressures lower than 0.1Pa. {\copyright} 2011 IEEE.},
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and Konishi, S. and Maegawa, T. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Numerical calculation of reactions on electrode surfaces and in a volume of a discharge type fusion neutron source: By developping a one dimensional particle-in-cell Monte Carlo code},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-80955141252&doi=10.1109%2fSOFE.2011.6052315&partnerID=40&md5=166f2007babc121ac7c83c8741857ea8},
 keywords = {Chamber walls;Discharge characteristics;Discharge types;Electrode surfaces;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Fusion neutron source;Fusion reactors;Gas pressures;glow discharge;Glow discharges;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Lower pressures;Monte Carlo;Monte Carlo codes;Monte Carlo collision;Monte Carlo methods;neutron source;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Numerical calculation;Partial discharges;Particle-in-cell;Reaction rates;Surface reactions},
 booktitle = {2011 IEEE/NPSS 24th Symposium on Fusion Engineering, SOFE 2011},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.1109/SOFE.2011.6052315}
}


@patent{NOBORIOKAZUYUKI.20070216,
 author = {Noborio, Kazuyuki and {KONISHI TETSUYUKI} and {YAMAMOTO YASUSHI}},
 year = {2007/02/16},
 title = {FUSION NEUTRON GENERATOR},
 url = {https://lens.org/148-479-383-290-599},
 number = {JP 2008202942 A}
}


@inproceedings{Nozaki.2006,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion has been studied for practical use as a portable neutron/proton source. In a conventional IEC device using a glow discharge, the neutron/proton production rate is proportional to the cathode current because beam-background reactions are dominant in contrast with the original IEC concept. However, since the neutron/proton production rate of beam-beam reactions is proportional to the cathode current squared, beam-beam reactions have a potential to increase the neutron/proton production rate in a high cathode current region. In this study, new IEC fusion device employing two ion sources based on a hollow cathode discharge was designed for the operation without the glow discharge, and its performance as differential pumping system was tested. From the experiment using the deuterium gas, it was confirmed that the ion sources produced a sufficient pressure difference expected to perform beam-beam reactions. {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Nozaki, Kei and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohura, Sonoe and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Preliminary study of beam-beam reactions in IEC fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-47349096059&doi=10.1109%2fDEIV.2006.357386&partnerID=40&md5=ae9ae3da5855da1d37a24547a5efe444},
 keywords = {Cathode currents;Deuterium;Deuterium gas;Differential pumping;Discharge (fluid mechanics);Electric discharges;Electrical insulation;Elementary particle sources;Fluid mechanics;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Glow discharges;Hollow cathode discharge (HCD);Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) devices;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);International symposium;In-vacuum;Ion sources;Ions;Magnetrons;Neutron sources;Nuclear physics;Practical use;Pressure differences;Production rates;Rate constants;Vacuum},
 urldate = {25 September 2006 through 29 September 2006},
 pages = {650--653},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the XXIInd International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/DEIV.2006.357386}
}


@inproceedings{Ogasawara.2001,
 author = {Ogasawara, Kazuki and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Sunaga, Yoshitaka and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Spectrum Analysis of Hydrogen Plasma in Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion},
 volume = {NIFS-PROC-50},
 booktitle = {Workshop on Extremely High Energy Density Plasmas and Their Diagnostics},
 year = {2001}
}


@inproceedings{Ogawa.2005,
 author = {Ogawa, Satoshi and Hama, Takeshi and Takamatsu, Teruhisa and Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Measurement of D-3He Proton in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2005},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2005s.0.606.0}
}


@inproceedings{Oginov.2016,
 abstract = {Processes of nuclear burning of various elements in the scheme of a compact inertial electrostatic confinement implemented on the basis of a nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD) with low-energy hollow cathode were investigated experimentally earlier. This paper presents the results of a recent series of DD fusion experiments on the newly created experimental set-up NVD-2 combined with x-ray and neutron yield diagnostics. The voltage-current (VA) characteristics of the discharge, and the regimes of generation of x-ray and DD neutrons realized experimentally are presented and discussed. The experimental results are compared with the results of particle-in-cell simulation of the nuclear DD fusion processes in NVD using electrodynamic code KARAT. Recent series of DD fusion experiments have reproducing in TOF scheme some basic features of DD neutrons yield observed earlier. Meanwhile, the analysis of V-A characteristics and anode erosion shows that efficiency of energy deposition at initial stage of discharge is still insufficient, and the ways to optimize the electrophysical processes at NVD-2 are clarified. {\copyright} Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Oginov, A. V. and Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Samoylov, I. S. and Shpakov, K. V. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Ostashev, V. E. and Rodionov, A. A. and Karpukhin, V. T.},
 title = {Recent experimental study of DD fusion in the potential well of a virtual cathode at nanosecond vacuum discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85007143650&doi=10.1088%2f1742-6596%2f774%2f1%2f012131&partnerID=40&md5=3482b8a6ed305e68b1a4978606afd12c},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electrodes;Energy depositions;Equations of state;Experimental set up;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron yield diagnostics;Particle-in-cell simulations;V-A characteristics;vacuum discharge;Virtual cathodes},
 volume = {774},
 booktitle = {Journal of Physics: Conference Series},
 year = {2016},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/774/1/012131}
}


@article{Oginov.2019,
 abstract = {Design features and parameters of a modernized installation of inertial electrostatic confinement based on a low-energy nanosecond vacuum discharge (similar to 1 J) are described when operating in diode geometry in the virtual cathode formation mode and the corresponding potential well. The device is used to study the processes of collisional DD synthesis in the interelectrode space, the processes of x-ray generation in complex plasma at various stages of the discharge: from the very initial stage, when the beam of autoelectrons only begins to irradiate the nonideal anode surface, to oscillating plasma configurations in later stages of the discharge. Here, the first steps were done to introduce x-ray spectral diagnostics, as well as to obtain the integral x-ray spectra for visualizations of interelectrode complex plasmas.},
 author = {Oginov, A. V. and Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Samoylov, I. S. and Shpakov, K. V. and Rodionov, A. A. and Karpukhin, V. T.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Time resolved x-ray emission from nanosecond vacuum discharge with virtual cathode},
 keywords = {INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;INTERELECTRODE PLASMA;NUCLEAR-FUSION},
 volume = {1147},
 issn = {1742-6588},
 journal = {15th Latin American Workshop on Plasma Physics (Lawpp 2014) and 21st    Iaea Tm on Research Using Small Fusion Devices (Rusfd)},
 doi = {10.1088/1742-6596/1147/1/012081}
}


@article{Oh.1984,
 abstract = {A computer simulation on electrostatic double layers is described, which provides a preliminary design and engineering study of the hydrogenic gas vessel and associated equipment for obtaining and demonstrating a stable ultra-high-temperature plasma fireball (approximately 6. 0-mm diam) confined at a pressure of 3. 1 multiplied by 10**7 n/m**2 by room-temperature gas.},
 author = {Oh, Inki and Schrader, William L. and Bass, Robert W.},
 year = {1984},
 title = {COMPUTER SIMULATION ON DOUBLE LAYERS FOR INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT OF PLASMA},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0021457338&doi=10.13182%2fFST84-A23118&partnerID=40&md5=f83c7d5e05d971fbfe525c605bc5455d},
 keywords = {BERNSTEIN-GREENE-KRUSKAL EQUILIBRIUM;Computer simulation;Deuterium;Double layers;ELECTROSTATICS - Electric Charge;Mathematical models;PLASMA FIREBALL;Plasmas;VLASOV-POISSON EQUATIONS},
 pages = {35--43},
 volume = {6},
 number = {1},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST84-A23118}
}


@inproceedings{Ohgaki.2010,
 abstract = {A nuclear material detection system based on neutron / gamma-ray hybrid approach has been proposed for the container inspection at the sea port. The neutron from the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion source will be used for a fast pre-screening process. The quasi-monochromatic gamma-ray beam from the laser Compton Backscattering source will be used for an isotope identification for the precise inspection. Nuclear resonance fluorescence method will be employed for the isotope identification because of its high selectivity and high penetration for the shielding. {\copyright} 2010 IEEE.},
 author = {Ohgaki, Hideaki and Kii, T. and Masuda, Kai and Hajima, Ryoichi and Hayakawa, T. and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Shizuma, Toshiyuki and Kawase, K. and Kando, M. and Toyokawa, H.},
 title = {Conceptual design of a nuclear material detection system based on the neutron / gamma-ray hybrid approach},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78651503566&doi=10.1109%2fTHS.2010.5654977&partnerID=40&md5=1e56f49369a314d2bc76119edb042b00},
 keywords = {Backscattering;Conceptual design;Container inspection;Containers;Electrostatics;Fluorescence;Gamma rays;High selectivity;Hybrid approach;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Inspection;Inspection equipment;Isotope identification;Isotopes;laser Compton backscattering;Neutrons;Nuclear material detection;nuclear resonance fluorescence;Nuclear resonance fluorescences;Quasi-monochromatic;Radioactive materials;Resonance;Screening process;Sea ports;Security systems;Stars},
 urldate = {8 November 2010 through 10 November 2010},
 pages = {525--529},
 booktitle = {10th IEEE International Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security, HST 2010},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.1109/THS.2010.5654977}
}


@article{Ohgaki.2011,
 abstract = {A nuclear material detection system based on a neutron / gamma-ray hybrid system has been proposed for container inspection at seaports. Neutrons from the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion source will be used for a fast pre-screening process with both neutrons and gamma-rays. The nuclear resonance fluorescence gamma-ray induced by a quasi-monochromatic gamma-ray beam from the laser Compton backscattering will be used in isotope identification for a precise post screening process. A combination of two different probes; neutrons and gamma-rays, can detect nuclear materials hidden by any kind of shielding.},
 author = {Ohgaki, Hideaki and Ku, T. and Masuda, Kai and Omer, Mohamed and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Hajima, Ryoichi and Hayakawa, T. and Shizuma, Toshiyuki and Kando, M. and Daito, Izuru and Toyokawa, H.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Proposal of a Non-Destructive Detection System for Hidden Nuclear Materials Based on a Neutron/Gamma-ray Hybrid System},
 keywords = {Active inspection system;CARGO;Inertial  electrostatic confinement fusion source;Inspection;laser Compton backscattering;Nuclear resonance fluorescence  gamma-ray;RESONANCE FLUORESCENCE;special nuclear material},
 pages = {3155--3159},
 volume = {59},
 number = {5},
 issn = {03744884},
 journal = {Journal of the Korean Physical Society},
 doi = {10.3938/jkps.59.3155}
}


@inproceedings{Ohgaki.2011b,
 author = {Ohgaki, Hideaki and Kii, Toshiteru and Masuda, Kai and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Mohamed, Omer and Hajima, Ryoichi and Hayakawa, Takehito and Shizuma, Toshiyuki and Kikuzawa, Nobuhiro and Kando, Masaki and Toyokawa, Hiroyuki and Fujimoto, Shinya and Daimon, Izuru and Hori, Toshitada},
 title = {Non-Destructive Inspection System for Hidden Special Nuclear Materials II: Design of the Neutron/Gamma-ray Hybrid System},
 publisher = {J-STAGE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2011f.0.36.0}
}


@inproceedings{Ohgaki.2012,
 abstract = {A study of a non-destructive inspection system for hidden special nuclear materials in the cargo container at the sea port has been carried out under a promotion of Japan Science and Technology. This inspection system consists of an active neutron detection method for a fast screening purpose and a nuclear resonance fluorescence (NRF) method for isotope identification. The inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device has been developed for a neutron source and two neutron detection methods, the Feynman-alpha method and high energy neutron detection method, have been examined to realize the fast screening system. Generation of a quasi-monochromatic gamma-ray beam from the laser Compton Backscattering by using a compact microtron electron accelerator and an NRF experiment on uranium target using a new type of scintillation detector, LaBr3(Ce), has been studied to realize the isotope identification system. {\copyright} 2012 IEEE.},
 author = {Ohgaki, Hideaki and Omer, Mohamed and Negm, Hani Hussein and Hori, T. and Kii, T. and Masuda, Kai and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Hajima, Ryoichi and Hayakawa, T. and Shizuma, Toshiyuki and Fujiwara, M. and Kando, M. and Daito, Izuru and Fujimoto, Shinya and Sakai, Fumio and Park, Seong Hee},
 title = {Non-destructive inspection system for special nuclear material using inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutrons and laser compton scattering gamma-rays},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84874558253&doi=10.1109%2fTHS.2012.6459928&partnerID=40&md5=0604393cda6ffae23f447d8158809c70},
 keywords = {Backscattering;Cargo container;Cargo containers;Condition monitoring;Containers;Electrostatics;Fusion reactors;Gamma rays;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inspection equipment;Isotopes;LaBr3(Ce);laser Compton backscattering;National security;Neutron detectors;Neutron sources;Non destructive inspection;non-destructive inspection system;NRF;Radioactive materials;sea port;Sea ports;Security systems},
 urldate = {13 November 2012 through 15 November 2012},
 pages = {666--671},
 booktitle = {2012 IEEE Conference on Technologies for Homeland Security (HST)},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.1109/THS.2012.6459928}
}


@article{Ohgaki.2017,
 abstract = {A Neutron/Gamma-ray combined inspection system for hidden special nuclear materials (SNMs) in cargo containers has been developed under a program of Japan Science and Technology Agency in Japan. This inspection system consists of an active neutron-detection system for fast screening and a laser Compton backscattering gamma-ray source in coupling with nuclear resonance fluorescence (NRF) method for precise inspection. The inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device has been adopted as a neutron source and two neutron-detection methods, delayed neutron noise analysis method and high-energy neutron-detection method, have been developed to realize the fast screening system. The prototype system has been constructed and tested in the Reactor Research Institute, Kyoto University. For the generation of the laser Compton backscattering gamma-ray beam, a race track microtron accelerator has been used to reduce the size of the system. For the NRF measurement, an array of LaBr3(Ce) scintillation detectors has been adopted to realize a low-cost detection system. The prototype of the gamma-ray system has been demonstrated in the Kansai Photon Science Institute, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology. By using numerical simulations based on the data taken from these prototype systems and the inspection-flow, the system designed by this program can detect 1 kg of highly enriched 235U (HEU) hidden in an empty 20-ft container within several minutes. {\copyright} 1963-2012 IEEE.},
 author = {Ohgaki, Hideaki and Daito, Izuru and Zen, Heishun and Kii, T. and Masuda, Kai and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Hajima, Ryoichi and Hayakawa, T. and Shizuma, Toshiyuki and Kando, M. and Fujimoto, Shinya},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Nondestructive Inspection System for Special Nuclear Material Using Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Neutrons and Laser Compton Scattering Gamma-Rays},
 keywords = {Backscattering;Cargo container;Cargo containers;Condition monitoring;Containers;Electrostatics;Fluorescence;Fusion reactors;Gamma rays;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Inspection;Inspection equipment;laser Compton backscattering;Microtrons;Neutron detectors;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Non destructive inspection;Nondestructive examination;nondestructive inspection system;nuclear resonance fluorescence;Nuclear resonance fluorescences;Radioactive materials;sea port;Sea ports},
 pages = {1635--1640},
 volume = {64},
 number = {7},
 issn = {00189499},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TNS.2017.2652619}
}


@inproceedings{Ohnishi.1995c,
 abstract = {The electrostatic potential well in an inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) is calculated by performing the numerical simulations based on the particle-in-cell method. The single, double and triple wells, depending on the amount of the injected ion current, are observed to be formed for the ions with a mono-energetic distribution. The well in the center of the multi-well structure is unstable and oscillates at the period much longer than the ion plasma frequency. A double well structure can be formed even for the ions with a spread energy distribution when the ion current is larger than the threshold value. The time-averaged neutron production in D-D fusion events is found to be proportional to the third power of the ion current where the double well structure is formed. The numerical simulation reveals that an IEC possesses the favorable dependence of fusion reactions on the injected ion current for the application to a neutron source or a fusion reactor},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Yamamoto, Y. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Sato, K. H.},
 title = {Multi-potential well formation and neutron production in inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion by numerical simulations},
 url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/wrapper.htm?arnumber=534502},
 keywords = {D-D fusion events;double well;Electrostatic potential well;Electrostatics;Frequency;fusion reactor design;fusion reactor operation;Fusion reactors;IEC;Inertial confinement;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion;injected ion current;ion current;ion plasma frequency;multi-potential well formation;Neutron production;Neutrons;numerical analysis;numerical simulation;numerical simulations;particle-in-cell method;Plasmas;potential well;Production;Single well;spread energy distribution;time-averaged neutron production;triple well},
 pages = {1468--1471},
 volume = {2},
 booktitle = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1995.534502}
}


@article{Ohnishi.1997,
 abstract = {The electrostatic potential well in inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) is studied using two approaches. First, the equilibrium potential profile is obtained by solving the charge neutrality condition, i.e. ni = nc, assuming the appropriate distribution functions for the ions and the electrons. The formation of a double well structure is demonstrated, with a depth depending upon the ratio between the focus radii of the electrons and the ions. The correlations between the well depth and the volume integrated neutron production due to deuterium-deuterium (DD) reactions are obtained. Second, in order to study the stability of the well, the dynamic behaviours of the potential well are calculated by performing time advancing numerical simulations on the basis of the particle in cell method. Single, double and triple wells, depending on the amount of injected ion current, are observed to be formed for ions with a monoenergetic distribution. The well in the centre of the multiwell structure is unstable and oscillates with a period much longer than the inverse ion plasma frequency. A double well structure can be formed even for ions with a spread out energy distribution when the ion current is larger than the threshold value. The time averaged neutron production by DD fusion events is proportional to a power of the ion current involved in forming the double well structure. The results strongly suggest that the high neutron production rate should be attributed to not only the well depth but also the unstable behaviour of the potential, i.e. the intermittent peaking of the density in the centre region. A numerical simulation reveals that IEC possesses a favourable dependence of fusion reactions on the injected ion current for the application to a neutron source or a fusion reactor.},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Sato, K. H. and Yamamoto, Y. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Correlation between potential well structure and neutron production in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031146973&doi=10.1088%2f0029-5515%2f37%2f5%2fI04&partnerID=40&md5=8e809e7430ccfe73d6df0492b7870603},
 keywords = {Cell method;Computer simulation;Deuterium;Electrons;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Inertial confinement fusion;Ions;Monoenergetic distribution;Neutron production;Neutrons;Potential well structure},
 pages = {611--619},
 volume = {37},
 number = {5},
 issn = {00295515},
 journal = {Nuclear Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0029-5515/37/5/I04}
}


@inproceedings{Ohnishi.1997b,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion is the scheme of injecting the ions and electrons toward the spherical center, trapping both species in the electrostatic self-field and giving rise to fusion reactions in the dense core. An IEC is expected to have wide application from a small neutron source to a D-{sup 3}He fusion reactor. Hirsch reported 10{sup 9} n/s deuterium-tritium (D-T) neutron production in the device equipped with ion guns. Recently, Gu et al. measured 10{sup 6} n/s using a D{sub 2} gas discharge between the spherical wire cathode and the anode vacuum vessel, where the applied voltage is 60 kV and the current is 15 mA. We have also obtained similar neutron production at a lower voltage, {approximately}45 kV in a single-grid IEC device. Fusion reaction rates obtained by IEC experiments so far cannot be explained by a model of a simple potential well structure because the electrical potential peaked at the center prevents making a dense core. Hirsch proposed a multiwell structure called {open_quotes}poissors{close_quotes} to explain the experiments. It is generally believed that there may be some correlation between the potential well structure and the neutron production rate. The scaling of neutron production on the injected ionmore {\frqq}},
 author = {Ohnishi, Masami and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Hasegawa, Mitsunori},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron source R {\&} D and issues},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/552668},
 pages = {CONF-971125},
 booktitle = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 year = {1997}
}


@article{Ohnishi.1998,
 abstract = {The scaling of neutron generation versus ion current is important in evaluating the prospect of an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) as a neutron source. In this paper, the scaling of neutron generation versus ion current, I, based on the results of both the experiments and the numerical simulations is discussed. The experiments shows the scaling of I2, while the numerical simulation gives the stronger scaling of I3. The regime of current in the present experiments is limited by the capability of the available power supplies. As the current increases, the potential structure is numerically shown to be more unstable. The intermittent peaking of the density is accompanied with unstable potential behaviors and brings about the higher density in time averaging. This may be a reason why the numerical simulation gives a stronger scaling versus ion current. Experiments in higher ion current regime may be required to verify the scaling estimated by the numerical simulation. {\copyright} 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Yamamoto, Y. and Hasegawa, M. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Miley, George H.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Study on an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion as a portable neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0032480103&doi=10.1016%2fS0920-3796%2897%2900199-3&partnerID=40&md5=a5b68da17a68bfcb4794ae953fb34385},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Electric currents;Electrostatics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;ion current;Ions;Neutron sources},
 pages = {207--211},
 volume = {42},
 number = {1-4},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/S0920-3796(97)00199-3}
}


@article{Ohnishi.1998b,
 abstract = {The dependence of neutron generation on the discharge current as well as the voltage in an IEC device is studied experimentally. We consider that the fusion events mainly occur between the accelerated ions and the background neutral gas from the linear dependence of neutron yield on the discharge current. The result of neutron generation proportional to the 3/2 power of the applied voltage indicates that the current within the hollow cathode may be limited by space charge. The particle simulation shows that the perveance in the experiments satisfies the conditions for space charge limited current.},
 author = {Ohnishi, Masami and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Hasegawa, Mitsunori and Hoshino, Chikara and Koyama, Takahiro and Taruya, Kenji},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Studies of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0032206043&doi=10.13182%2ffst98-a11963756&partnerID=40&md5=5bde3d0241bb3c96bf87ffd4ecee15d1},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Computer simulation;Electric currents;Electric space charge;Electrostatics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Neutron sources;Particle beam injection;Tokamak devices},
 pages = {1071--1075},
 volume = {34},
 number = {3 pt 2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst98-a11963756}
}


@inproceedings{Ohnishi.1999b,
 abstract = {In a steady operation of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF), the electrons produced within a wire cathode should escape out and reach the anode, on the other hand the ions accelerated towards the cathode should enter the cathode at last. To verify the guess, we developed a 3-D imulation code and studied formation of potential distribution, electron trajectories and ion trajectories. The simulation results support electron streaming-out from the central region through the center area of opening of the cathode, which explain the distinctive discharge called a star mode commonly observed in the IECF experiments.},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Hoshino, Chikara and Masuda, Kai and Yamamoto, Y. and Toku, Hisayuki and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Electron streaming from central core region in inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion},
 pages = {213--216},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.1999.849822}
}


@article{Ohnishi.2000,
 abstract = {We study the transport of ions and electrons near the cathode of the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion that is expected to be a portable neutron source. We carry out a PIC particle simulation in order to obtain the self-consistent electrostatic potential and the transparency of the cathode for the accelerated ions. The transparency is shown to be much less than a geometrical transparency and possesses a strong dependence on the energy of ions. The increase of the applied voltage results in larger neutron production due to increased fusion cross section and also increased ion current by the improved transparency. {\copyright} 2000 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Hoshino, Chikara and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Yamamoto, Y.},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Beam optics in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-5244230465&doi=10.1063%2f1.1150430&partnerID=40&md5=67d897957200e4610fc44481a1df67d7},
 pages = {1210--1212},
 volume = {71},
 number = {2 II},
 issn = {00346748},
 journal = {Review of Scientific Instruments},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1150430}
}


@article{Ohnishi.2001,
 abstract = {A particle-in-cell calculation code was made to simulate the operation of an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device. The computation includes the effects of ionization by electron impact. Several techniques to save computational time are introduced in this program code. One of them is time-dependent fine space meshes used in the regions where the particles concentrate. Several superparticles that have similar radial position as well as similar energy are merged, while one superparticle is divided into several particles with a somewhat different velocity when the total number of superparticles decreases. The methods enable more precise determination of the characteristics of an IEC device in a shorter time than by previous methods.},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Yamamoto, Y.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Particle-in-cell simulation of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion plasma},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035336928&doi=10.13182%2fFST01-A175&partnerID=40&md5=4aae73f9bb895910ea2951f23be4991f},
 keywords = {Computation theory;Computer simulation;Electrons;Electrostatic potential well;Electrostatics;Impact ionization;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion devices;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Ions;Particle-in-cell simulation;Plasma simulation;Poisson equation},
 pages = {1211--1216},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A175}
}


@article{Ohnishi.2001c,
 author = {Ohnishi, M.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Special issue on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion - Guest editor's comments},
 pages = {V},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology}
}


@article{Ohnishi.2005,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion is a scheme of producing deuterium, tritium, and helium-3 ions between the anode and the hollow cathode in the concentric sphere by glow discharge, accelerating the ions into the spherical center and giving rise to the fusion reactions between the accelerated ions or between the accelerated ions and the background neutrals. The current feed-through is connected to the cathode through the anode in order to apply the negative high potential. Some of accelerated ions directly bombard the feed-through as well as the cathode, and the ions, the orbits of which are deformed by lack of symmetry, hit the cathode after several bounce motions through it. The existence of the feed-through breaks the spherical symmetry of the device and shortens the lifetime of the accelerated ions. The hollow cathode also distorts a spherical potential near it. First, the effects of the structure of the spherical hollow cathode on the life are studied at various birth positions of the ions by numerically tracking the trajectory of ions in three dimensional spaces. Second, the effects of the shapes of the cathode and the anode on the life are investigated. The shapes of the cathode and the anode that assure a longer life are examined, and the virtual transparency of the cathode is numerically derived from the time dependent reduction of ions. It is revealed that the lifetime of accelerated ions becomes three times longer by deforming a hemisphere of the anode pierced by the feed-through into a hemi-ellipsoid. The results are useful in designing an anode and cathode to achieve high performance of an IEC fusion neutron source. {\copyright} 2005 Taylor {\&} Francis Group, Ltd.},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H. and Tanaka, R. and Wakizaka, N.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Shape of electrodes for high performance of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-20944431962&doi=10.1080%2f18811248.2005.9726407&partnerID=40&md5=a758e3b864d704d42c60c6bc82f9433a},
 keywords = {Anodes;Deuterium;Electrodes;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Glow discharge neutron source;Glow discharges;helium;Hemi-elliptical anodes;Hemi-spherical;Hemi-spherical and hemi-spherical anodes;Hollow cathode structure;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Intertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Ions;Lifetime of accelerated ion;Neutrons;Tritium;Virtual transparency of cathode},
 pages = {398--405},
 volume = {42},
 number = {4},
 issn = {00223131},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/18811248.2005.9726407}
}


@article{Ohnishi.2007,
 abstract = {A neutron production rate (NPR) of 2.3x106 1/sec has been achieved in a spherically convergent D-D fusion neutron generator with the applied voltage 60 kV and the steady-state discharge current 40 mA. The scaling of NPR with respect to the current, however, is linear. The results revealed the fact that the fusion reaction occurs mainly between the accelerated molecular ion D2+ and neutral gas D20. In considering a future application of the neutron source, the dependence on a square current, i.e., the fact that the main reactions are caused by accelerated ion beam-beam colliding fusions is most desirable. A new IEC device has been constructed in order to obtain evidence of beam-beam colliding fusions. The device is designed to operate in a short pulse of the voltage -70 kV and the large current 100 A. This is the first experiment to draw a current of several tens of amperes in IEC devices. The discharge characteristics were studied with regard to the relations of the current, applied voltage and gas pressure. The neutron production rate was also measured, and the conditions to realize accelerated ion beam-beam fusion are discussed.},
 author = {Ohnishi, Masami and Hodaka, Osawa and Furukawa, Tomoya and Suma, Takashi},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Development of convergent D-D fusion neutron generator with large pulse current},
 pages = {1101--1104},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1644}
}


@article{Ohnishi.2016,
 abstract = {An experiment on tritium burning is conducted to investigate the enhancement in the neutron production rate in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) facility. The facility is designed such that it is shielded from the outside for safety against tritium and a getter pump is used for evacuating the vacuum chamber and feeding the fuel gas. A deuterium--tritium gas mixture with 93{\%} deuterium and 7{\%} tritium is used, and its neutron production rate is measured to be 5--8 times more than that of pure deuterium gas. Moreover, the results show good agreement with those of a simplified theoretical estimation of the neutron production rate. After tritium burning, the exhausted fuel gas undergoes a tritium recovery procedure through a water bubbler device. The amount of gaseous tritium released by the developed IECF facility after tritium burning is verified to be much less than the threshold set by regulations. {\copyright} 2015 Elsevier B.V.},
 author = {Ohnishi, M. and Yamamoto, Y. and Osawa, H. and Hatano, Y. and Torikai, Y. and Murata, I. and Kamakura, K. and Onishi, M. and Miyamoto, K. and Konda, H. and Masuda, Kai and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Tritium burning in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion facility},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84988311436&doi=10.1016%2fj.fusengdes.2015.10.025&partnerID=40&md5=9029b342ae6e746d0cafc00888d7df79},
 keywords = {Deuterium;D--T burning;Electrostatics;Getter pump;Getter pumps;Getters;Neutron production;Neutrons;Plasma interactions;Tritium;Tritium recovery;Tritium safety;Water bubbler},
 pages = {1709--1713},
 volume = {109-111},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/j.fusengdes.2015.10.025}
}


@proceedings{Ohta.1993,
 year = {1993},
 title = {Frontier Science Series {\#}7},
 editor = {Ohta, T. and Homma, T.}
}


@inproceedings{Oishi.2006,
 author = {Oishi, Takuya. and Ogawa, Satoshi and Zen, Heishun and Takamatsu, Teruhisa and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Spatial Distribution of D-3He Fusion Reactions in an IEC Fusion Device},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2006f.0.779.0}
}


@inproceedings{Okino.2001,
 author = {Okino, A. and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ogasawara, Kazuki and Watanabe, Masato and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Spectroscopic Measurements of Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion},
 booktitle = {IEEE Conference Record - Abstracts. PPPS-2001 Pulsed Power Plasma Science 2001. 28th IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science and 13th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference (Cat. No.01CH37},
 year = {2001},
 doi = {10.1109/PPPS.2001.960936}
}


@misc{Okutomo.,
 abstract = {We tested a linear type Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) neutron source that adopted permanent magnets to enhance ion production rate in the glow-discharge plasma By introducing magnetic fields locally near the discharge anodes, the neutron production rate (NPR) normalized by background gas pressure increased by a factor of 18 and the light emission pattern of the discharge plasma drastically changed A neutron imaging test was also carried out by using a coaxial cylinder type IEC neutron source Neutron transmission images were successfully obtained even with a neutron flux of 45 n/s/cm2, which coincided well with numerical predictions based on Monte-Carlo simulations (author)},
 author = {Okutomo, Kohei and Aymanns, Florian and Hotta, Eiki and Takakura, Kei and Hasegawa, Jun and Kohno, Toshiyuki},
 date = {2018},
 title = {Development of an inertial electrostatic confinement neutron source and its application to neutron imaging},
 url = {http://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:50040120},
 address = {Japan},
 number = {NIFS-PROC-110},
 institution = {{National Institute for Science}}
}


@inproceedings{Okutomo.2017,
 author = {Okutomo, Kohei and Aymanns, Florian and Hotta, Eiki and Takakura, Kei and Hasegawa, Jun and Kohno, Toshiyuki},
 title = {Development of an inertial electrostatic confinement neutron source and its application to neutron imaging},
 volume = {NIFS-PROC-110},
 booktitle = {Symposium of ``Recent Developments of Pulsed Power Technology and Plasma Application Research''},
 year = {2017}
}


@inproceedings{Osawa.2003,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device is possibly used for the neutron source that has the ability to produce the neutrons of 10 5-107/s by the use of the glow discharge. It works more efficient at the condition of the high voltage and the low pressure. It, however, is difficult to keep the continuous operation at the low-pressure because the glow discharge is not stable. We made the two-dimensional Monte Carlo PIC code including atomic processes to simulate the discharge and to show the results that most of D2+ ionized the D2 gas at the particular space near the cathode. {\copyright}2003 IEEE.},
 author = {Osawa, H. and Kawame, T. and Yoshioku, S. and Ohnishi, M.},
 title = {Study on discharge characteristics of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-27644498003&partnerID=40&md5=aec408214d6c372062b089510f6003cd},
 keywords = {Atomic processes;Cathodes;Codes (standards);Computer simulation;Deuterium;Electric potential;Electrostatics;Glow discharges;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Monte Carlo methods;Monte Carlo PIC codes;Neutron sources;Plasma confinement;Plasma theory;Positive ions;Pressure effects;Two dimensional},
 urldate = {14 October 2003 through 17 October 2003},
 pages = {316--319},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 20th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering, 2003},
 year = {2003}
}


@inproceedings{Osawa.2004,
 author = {Osawa, Hodaka and Tanaka, Ryo and Ohnishi, Masami},
 title = {Suitable Position of Ion Source on Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2004},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2004s.0.677.0}
}


@article{Osawa.2005,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device is possibly used for portable neutron sources. R. L. Hirsh reported that D-D the neutrons of 1.8 $\times$ 108 n/s were produced. Recently, the similar amounts of fusion reactions are observed to occur in IEC devices In the most of IEC devices, since gas pressure is so high that the ions lose their energy by the frequent collisions with the neutral gas. The conditions of the high voltage and the low pressure are preferable because the energy of beam ions is kept very high and used for the fusion reaction more efficiently. It, however, is difficult to produce enough amounts of ions through a glow discharge at the low pressure. One of the solutions is to equip the ion source such as a magnetron near the anode. We have made three-dimensional orbit following code to evaluate the life of the ions produced near the anode surface. The code includes atomic collisions with background neutral gas and indicates the optimal positions to equip ion source which gives longer life of accelerated ions.},
 author = {Osawa, H. and Ishibashi, Takayuki and Ohnishi, M. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Optimal position of ion source for high performance of IEC},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744372156&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A862&partnerID=40&md5=dc6f55bae55e9164ac1a4185f89596f2},
 keywords = {Anodes;Atomic collisions;Deuterium;Deuterium-deuterium fusion;Elastic collisions;Electrostatics;Finite difference method;Glow discharges;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);ion beams;Ion sources;Magnetrons;Mathematical models;Neutron sources;Relaxation processes;Vacuum pumps;Voltage control},
 pages = {1265--1269},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A862}
}


@article{Osawa.2005b,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device is possibly used for the neutron source that has the ability to produce the neutrons of 10 5-108/s by the glow discharge. It works more efficiently at the condition of the high voltage and the low pressure. It, however, is difficult to keep the continuous operation at the low-pressure because the glow discharge is apt to be unstable. We have made the three-dimensional Monte Carlo PIC code including atomic processes to investigate the glow discharge. The study reveals the spatial position where the ionization occurs and numerically reproduces the discharge called 'star mode'.},
 author = {Osawa, H. and Tabata, T. and Ohnishi, M.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Numerical study on glow discharge of IEC fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744363657&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A863&partnerID=40&md5=1e6c8added99494b9814613d7fc55f0c},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Control equipment;Electrostatics;Glow discharges;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device;Ion acceleration;Ionization;Molecular pumps;Monte Carlo methods;Neutron sources;nuclear fusion;Plasmas;Potential energy;Pressure effects},
 pages = {1270--1274},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A863}
}


@inproceedings{Osawa.2006,
 abstract = {An IECF (Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion) device is a very simple and safe neutron source using the glow discharge in deuterium gas and deuterium - deuterium fusion. The discharge characteristic is studied experimentally. The gas pressure - applied voltage characteristics are examined altering the device's anode size. The gas pressure range that the device is able to work is differed by the anode's radius differs. With larger anode, the glow discharge is occurred even in less pressure and it is very stable for current change. {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Osawa, H. and Yoshimura, S. and Tabata, T. and Ohnishi, M.},
 title = {Discharge characteristics of anode size in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-47349112689&doi=10.1109%2fDEIV.2006.357404&partnerID=40&md5=3236c7f3013cc2523f98ab4aa87e3565},
 keywords = {Applied voltages;Current change;Deuterium;Deuterium deuterium fusion;Deuterium gas;Discharge (fluid mechanics);Discharge characteristics;Electric discharges;Electrical insulation;Electrostatics;Fluid mechanics;Fusion reactions;Gas pressures;Glow discharges;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);International symposium;In-vacuum;Neutron sources;Nuclear physics;Vacuum},
 urldate = {25 September 2006 through 29 September 2006},
 pages = {722--725},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the XXIInd International Symposium on Discharges and Electrical Insulation in Vacuum},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/DEIV.2006.357404}
}


@article{Osawa.2007,
 abstract = {An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion device is a very simple and safe neutron source that uses a glow discharge for deuterium-deuterium fusion. The discharge characteristics of the device were studied experimentally. The relationship between gas pressure and applied voltage was examined by light changes of the device's anode size. The gas pressure ranges in which the device was able to function effectively were differed. In the case of a larger anode (300 mm in diameter), the glow discharge occurred even under a relatively low pressure of 0.7 Pa and was very stable during a long period of neutron production. The characteristics of the gas pressure-neutron yield of different size anodes were also studied experimentally. At lower gas pressure, a greater neutron yield was obtained by a larger anode.},
 author = {Osawa, H. and Yoshimura, S. and Tabata, T. and Ohnishi, M.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Glow discharge characteristics in relation to anode size in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-34547883493&doi=10.3131%2fjvsj.50.362&partnerID=40&md5=3fdab0e27d012885383511aa67f57403},
 keywords = {Anodes;Deuterium;Deuterium fusion;Electrostatics;glow discharge;Neutrons;Pressure effects},
 pages = {362--365},
 volume = {50},
 number = {5},
 issn = {05598516},
 journal = {Shinku/Journal of the Vacuum Society of Japan},
 doi = {10.3131/jvsj.50.362}
}


@inproceedings{Osawa.2011,
 author = {Osawa, Hodaka and Maeda, Akihide and Nakano, Ikuta and Ishikura, Yasuhiro and Ohnishi, Masami},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Neutron Source with RF Ion Sources at Confront Position: Discharge characteristic and neutron production rate},
 publisher = {J-STAGE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2011},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2011s.0.700.0}
}


@article{Oura.2006,
 author = {Oura, Sonoe and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Kohno, Toshiyuki and Hotta, Eiki and Yuura, Morimasa},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Neutron and proton measurements of cylindrical radially convergent beam fusion},
 pages = {384},
 volume = {49},
 number = {9},
 issn = {03744884},
 journal = {Journal of the Korean Physical Society}
}


@book{Panarella.1997,
 year = {1997},
 title = {Current Trends in International Fusion Research},
 address = {Boston, MA},
 publisher = {{Springer US}},
 isbn = {978-1-4615-5867-5},
 editor = {Panarella, Emilio}
}


@article{Park.2003,
 abstract = {Theoretical works by Barnes and Nebel [R. A. Nebel and D. C. Barnes, Fusion Technol. 38, 28 (1998); D. C. Barnes and R. A. Nebel, Phys. Plasmas 5, 2498 (1998)] have suggested that a tiny oscillating ion cloud may undergo a self-similar collapse in a harmonic oscillator potential formed by a uniform electron background. By tuning the external radio-frequency electric fields to this naturally occurring mode, it is then possible to heat the ions to obtain very high densities and temperatures simultaneously during the collapse phase of the oscillation through adiabatic compression. However, a major uncertainty in this oscillating plasma scheme is the dynamics and stability of the background electrons in the virtual cathode. Recent work based on the electron fluid equations have demonstrated that the required electron cloud is susceptible to an instability that is analogous to the Rayleigh-Taylor mode present in fluid mechanics [R. A. Nebel and J. M. Finn, Phys. Plasmas 8, 1505 (2001)]. This paper describes an inertial electrostatic confinement device at Los Alamos National Laboratory that is being used to test the electron dynamics in a virtual cathode and will subsequently be used to verify this heating and compression scheme. Results from the device operation will be presented including the formation of deep potential wells and bifurcations in the potential equilibria. A simple model is used to explain this bifurcation. (C) 2003 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Park, J. and Nebel, Richard A. and Rellergert, W. G. and Sekora, M. D.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Experimental studies of electrostatic confinement on the intense neutron source-electron device},
 keywords = {FLUID;potential well},
 pages = {3841--3849},
 volume = {10},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1605740}
}


@article{Park.2005,
 abstract = {The periodically oscillating plasma sphere (POPS) [D.C. Barnes and R.A. Nebel, Phys. Plasmas 5, 2498 (1998).PHPAEN1070-664X10.1063/1.872933] oscillation has been observed in a gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device. In these experiments, ions in the virtual cathode exhibit resonant behavior when driven at the POPS frequency. Excellent agreement between the observed POPS resonance frequency and theoretical predictions has been observed for a wide range of potential well depths and for three different ion species. The results provide the first experimental validation of the POPS concept proposed by Barnes and Nebel [R.A. Nebel and D.C. Barnes, Fusion Technol. 34, 28 (1998).FUSTE80748-1896].},
 author = {Park, J. and Nebel, Richard A. and Stange, S. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Experimental observation of a periodically oscillating plasma sphere in a gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-27144537705&doi=10.1103%2fPhysRevLett.95.015003&partnerID=40&md5=53c1a650c1fc8214ea75c939fdd94439},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electrostatic confinement device;Electrostatics;Ion species;Natural frequencies;Periodically oscillating plasma sphere (POPS);Plasmas},
 volume = {95},
 number = {1},
 issn = {00319007},
 journal = {Physical Review Letters},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.015003}
}


@article{Park.2005b,
 abstract = {The periodically oscillating plasma sphere, or POPS, is a novel fusion concept first proposed by D. C. Barnes and R. A. Nebel [Fusion Technol. 38, 28 (1998)]. POPS utilizes the self-similar collapse of an oscillating ion cloud in a spherical harmonic oscillator potential well formed by electron injection. Once the ions have been phase-locked, their coherent motion simultaneously produces very high densities and temperatures during the collapse phase of the oscillation. A requirement for POPS is that the electron injection produces a stable harmonic oscillator potential. This has been demonstrated in a gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device and verified by particle simulation. Also, the POPS oscillation has been confirmed experimentally through observation that the ions in the potential well exhibit resonance behavior when driven at the POPS frequency. Excellent agreement between the observed POPS frequencies and the theoretical predictions has been observed for a wide range of potential well depths and three different ion species. Practical applications of POPS require large plasma compressions. These large compressions have been observed in particle simulations, although space charge neutralization remains a major issue. {\copyright} 2005 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Park, J. and Nebel, Richard A. and Stange, S. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Periodically oscillating plasma sphere},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-20844439212&doi=10.1063%2f1.1888822&partnerID=40&md5=56ce532228e7cffcdfceaa632b836d03},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Deuterium;Deuterium-tritium (D-T) fuels;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Harmonic oscillator potential;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Magnetic field effects;Periodically oscillating plasma sphere;Plasma confinement;Plasma oscillations},
 pages = {1--6},
 volume = {12},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1888822}
}


@article{Park.2006,
 abstract = {This paper presents experimental and simulation results of discharge in spherically

convergent beam fusion device. The deuterium-deuterium (D-D) fusion reaction in that device will

generate neutron. The experimental device is consists of a vacuum chamber made of stainless steel,

spherical mesh type anode and concentric grid cathode of 5cm diameter. The pressure of chamber

maintained constant by injecting gas and pulsed voltage applied to grid cathode. A star mode

discharge which has possibility of neutron generation was observed.},
 author = {Park, Jeong Ho and Ju, Heung-Jin and Ko, Kwang Cheol},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Portable Neutron Source Using by Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion Device for Nondestructive Testing},
 url = {https://www.scientific.net/KEM.321-323.1659},
 keywords = {Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion;Star mode discharge},
 pages = {1659--1662},
 volume = {321-323},
 issn = {1662-9795},
 journal = {Key Engineering Materials},
 doi = {10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.321-323.1659}
}


@article{Park.2015,
 abstract = {We report experimental results validating the concept that plasma confinement is enhanced in a magnetic cusp configuration when \textgreek{b} (plasma pressure/magnetic field pressure) is of order unity. This enhancement is required for a fusion power reactor based on cusp confinement to be feasible. The magnetic cusp configuration possesses a critical advantage: the plasma is stable to large scale perturbations. However, early work indicated that plasma loss rates in a reactor based on a cusp configuration were too large for net power production. Grad and others theorized that at high \textgreek{b} a sharp boundary would form between the plasma and the magnetic field, leading to substantially smaller loss rates. While not able to confirm the details of Grad's work, the current experiment does validate, for the first time, the conjecture that confinement is substantially improved at high \textgreek{b}. This represents critical progress toward an understanding of the plasma dynamics in a high-\textgreek{b} cusp system. We hope that these results will stimulate a renewed interest in the cusp configuration as a fusion confinement candidate. In addition, the enhanced high-energy electron confinement resolves a key impediment to progress of the Polywell fusion concept, which combines a high-\textgreek{b} cusp configuration with electrostatic fusion for a compact, power-producing nuclear fusion reactor.},
 author = {Park, J. and Krall, Nicholas Anthony and Sieck, Paul E. and Offermann, D. T. and Skillicorn, M. and Sanchez, A. and Davis, Kevin and Alderson, Eric C. and Lapenta, G.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {High-energy electron confinement in a magnetic cusp configuration},
 keywords = {Dynamics;Fusion power reactors;High-energy electron;Key impediments;Large-scale perturbations;Magnetism;Magnetoplasma;Nuclear fusion reactors;Plasma confinement;Plasma diagnostics;Plasma pressures;Power production;Sharp boundaries},
 volume = {5},
 number = {2},
 issn = {21603308},
 journal = {Physical Review X},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevX.5.021024}
}


@patent{Park.2015d,
 author = {Park, Jaeyoung and Krall, Nicholas Anthony and Sieck, Paul E.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Method and Apparatus of Confining High Energy Charged Particles in Magnetic Cusp Configuration}
}


@patent{PARKJAEYOUNG.20150311,
 author = {{PARK JAEYOUNG} and Krall, Nicholas Anthony and Sieck, Paul E.},
 year = {2015/03/11},
 title = {METHOD AND APPARATUS OF CONFINING HIGH ENERGY CHARGED PARTICLES IN MAGNETIC CUSP CONFIGURATION},
 url = {https://lens.org/017-298-150-602-851},
 number = {WO 2015/191128 A2}
}


@inproceedings{Pasmann.2019,
 abstract = {Despite the potential for limitless clean energy, nuclear fusion is seldom discussed in conjunction with other alternative energy sources. Nonetheless, there is a small but strong amateur community dedicated to the research of nuclear fusion. If grown, this community may help facilitate more conversation, interest, and eventual research into nuclear fusion. An often-large barrier in independent fusion research is detection and quantification of reactions. This research outlines the common methods currently used for fusion detection in inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) reactors and suggests an experiment to explore indirect methods of detection using Matlab code written for light emission analysis. Current indirect, or theoretical, methods of determining reaction rate are unreliable, as they do not consider all construction variables of the reactor. By measuring characteristics of the plasma to determine reaction rate, a more accurate indirect measurement method may be developed, allowing for a larger number of individuals to participate in nuclear fusion research. Copyright {\copyright} 2019 ASME.},
 author = {Pasmann, S. and Farina, J. and Dillon, H.},
 title = {Nuclear fusion detection methods for use with IEC machines},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85078695171&doi=10.1115%2fIMECE2019-10221&partnerID=40&md5=114f901f02e01a9828f84177c9fa5c07},
 keywords = {Alternative energy source;Amateur communities;Detection and quantifications;Detection methods;Emission analysis;Indirect measurement method;Indirect methods;Inertial electrostatic confinement reactors;MATLAB;Nuclear energy;Reaction rates},
 volume = {6},
 booktitle = {ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Proceedings (IMECE)},
 year = {2019},
 doi = {10.1115/IMECE2019-10221}
}


@article{Paul.2015,
 abstract = {The paper reports a new electrostatic-confinement-based fusion approach, where a new non-equilibrium distribution function for an ion-beam compressed by an external electric force has been derived. This distribution function allows the system to possess appreciably low and insignificant thermal energy irrespective of the energy per particle. The spread of energy among particles in the non-equilibrium state is attributed to collisions in the presence of external force, whereas for equilibrium, the spreading of energy is due to the absence of force. The reactivity for a deuterium-deuterium fusion, using the proposed distribution function, has been computed. It is shown that for initiating fusion among the particles, the fusion time is comparable with the energy confinement time of ions for beam energy greater than 160 keV. The estimated energy gain factor Q (ratio of the output fusion power to the power consumed by the system) is around 12 for beam energy 170 keV and ion density 1015 cm-3. The energy loss due to particle scattering is estimated and is taken into consideration for the estimation of energy gain. An outline of a conceptual model of a device is proposed in accordance with the proposed theory and the device is not similar to the one used conventionally in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement systems based on collisions of a beam with a reflex beam or with background gas or plasma. {\copyright} 2014 Cambridge University Press.},
 author = {Paul, R. K.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Investigation on the feasibility of fusion in a compressed beam of ions subject to an electrostatic field},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84921613684&doi=10.1017%2fS0022377814000373&partnerID=40&md5=3747b9bc7916926207b293a0c19fc7a1},
 keywords = {Conceptual model;Deuterium;Deuterium-deuterium fusion;Distribution functions;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Energy confinement;Energy dissipation;Inertial electrostatic confinement;ion beams;Ions;Non equilibrium;Nonequilibrium state;Particle scattering},
 volume = {81},
 number = {1},
 issn = {00223778},
 journal = {Journal of Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1017/S0022377814000373}
}


@inproceedings{Petkow.2011,
 abstract = {The spherical IEC concept as well as driving research objectives in the context of a potential application as an innovative plasma propulsion system in space are briefly in- troduced. The numerical approach currently under development is outlined. Focus is on the DSMC code development for the kinetic treatment of fusion reactions. Correspond- ingly, typical criteria like resolution necessities are derived. We find that for a fully kinetic all-scale particle simulation of a typical IEC device only one spatial scale needs to be con- sidered. However, with the applied field solver (explicit, full Maxwell) three different time scales have to be accounted for, but the number of time scales might be reduced by one if e.g. a Poisson solver is used instead. Numerical problems are expected from an inappropriate definition of the Debye length as well as from the divergence of the Coulomb cross section. Potential countermeasures as well as certain solution paths are sketched.},
 author = {Petkow, Dejan and Herdrich, Georg H. and Fasoulas, Stefanos},
 title = {On the kinetic modeling of fusion processes in IEC devices},
 url = {http://www.esa.int/gsp/ACT/doc/PRO/ACT-RPR-PRO-2011-IEPC-311.pdf},
 booktitle = {32nd International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2011}
}


@patent{Petkow.20170503,
 author = {Petkow, Dejan and Rouwette, Sander M. M.},
 year = {2017/05/03},
 title = {APPARATUS FOR GENERATING A PLASMA JET, IN PARTICULAR FOR SPACE PROPULSION},
 url = {https://lens.org/026-436-372-507-285},
 number = {EP 3242534 A1}
}


@article{Piefer.2005,
 abstract = {Recent developments in helicon ion sources and Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device performance at UW-Madison have enabled low pressure ({\&}lt; 50 \textgreek{m}torr, 6.7 mPa) operating conditions that should allow the 3He-3He fusion reaction to be observed in an IEC device. An ion source capable of delivering a $\sim$ 10 mA 3He ion beam into an IEC device with minimal neutral gas flow has been designed and tested. Furthermore, a new IEC device that has never been operated with deuterium has been constructed to avoid D-3He protons from obstructing the 3He-3He reaction product spectrum, and to minimize Penning ionization of deuterium by excited helium, which in the past is suspected to have limited the ionized density of He. These developments make it possible to study beam-background 3He-3He fusion reactions with {\&}gt; 300 mA recirculating ion currents.},
 author = {Piefer, Gregory R. and Santarius, John F. and Ashley, Robert P. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Design of an ion source for 3He fusion in a low pressure IEC device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744365795&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A860&partnerID=40&md5=a27218ec47dc72bc286c207a4471680e},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Deuterium;Electrostatics;helium;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion devices;Ion energy;Ion sources;Ionization;Ionized density;Isotopes;Low pressure IEC device;Particle accelerators;Pressure effects},
 pages = {1255--1259},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A860}
}


@phdthesis{Piefer.2006,
 author = {Piefer, Gregory R.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Performance of a Low-Pressure, Helicon driven IEC He3 fusion device},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@proceedings{Planarella.1999,
 year = {1999},
 title = {Current Trends in International Fusion Research: Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium},
 publisher = {{NRC Research Press}},
 editor = {Planarella, Emilio}
}


@phdthesis{Porter.1968,
 author = {Porter, G. D.},
 year = {1968},
 title = {Some Considerations on the Electrostatic Confinement of Fusion Gases},
 school = {{The Pennsylvania State University}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Porter.1971,
 abstract = {A simple procedure for numerically obtaining the solution of a linear, differential boundary--value problem is presented. For an nth--order equation, the technique requires the solution of n initial--value problems. The solution of the boundary--value problem is then a linear combination of these solutions. The technique has very attractive features that should make it a convenient method for studying a variety of stability problems in bounded systems. As an example of these applications, the initial stability of the inertial containment device proposed by Hirsch is examined. It is found that the particular model studied is marginally stable. The results are compared with computer simulation studies of the device.},
 author = {Porter, G. D. and Klevans, E. H.},
 year = {1971},
 title = {Plasma Stability in Bounded Systems with Application to a Two--Stream Instability in Spherical Geometry},
 pages = {428--434},
 volume = {14},
 number = {2},
 issn = {10706631},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1693444}
}


@article{Poznic.2019,
 abstract = {Langmuir probe data from a low beta Polywell device at the University of Sydney are analysed to compare models describing its electron velocity distribution function (EVDF). Three models are compared using the Bayesian evidence across datasets measured at different spatial points in the device at varying coil voltage biases and coil currents. The best performing model of the EVDF across all datasets is found to be a mixture of Maxwellian and Gaussian distributions. This outperforms a model with a pure Maxwellian distribution and another model with an advanced non-thermalised distribution, indicating that this device partially thermalises its confined electron population. From the same analysis, the Bayesian posterior is used to give statistical distributions of plasma parameters, such as the plasma potential and density. Compared across the different datasets, these parameters indicate the successful formation of an electric potential well, crucial to the operation of the Polywell, and the conditions in which it appears. They also indicate that the electron density forms a dense shell near the centre of the device, which contracts with increasing bias voltage and coil current. {\copyright} 2019 Author(s).},
 author = {Poznic, Dominic and Ren, J. and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Electron density and velocity functions in a low beta Polywell},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85061050633&doi=10.1063%2f1.5049865&partnerID=40&md5=278ca2937f7d889aa28908aed3697594},
 keywords = {Bayesian evidence;Carrier concentration;Distribution functions;Electric potential;Electron density measurement;Electron population;Electron velocity analyzers;Electron velocity distribution functions;Electrons;Maxwellian distribution;Plasma parameter;Plasma potential;Statistical distribution;University of Sydney},
 volume = {26},
 number = {2},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.5049865}
}


@phdthesis{Poznic.2019b,
 author = {Poznic, Dominic},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Statistical and Information Analysis of Plasma Diagnostics},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Puri.2020,
 abstract = {Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is an electric propulsion concept specifically being developed for space vehicles. It combines a helicon source (used to generate high density plasma at low input power) and an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) chamber to extract the ions from helicon using Nickel grids. Another feature is that IEC grids produce a stream of electrons that are used to neutralize the plasma during the exhaust stage. Research in the past has established HIIPER as a successful concept for space propulsion with numerous advantages -- high-density plume, compatibility with different propellants and neutral exhaust. One of the main shortcomings is the low thrust generated and hence low overall efficiency of the propulsion system. These shortcomings can be overcome by reducing the ion loss to the walls of different components inside the system and improving the plasma acceleration with the help of a magnetic nozzle (MN). Addition of a magnetic nozzle as the third stage of HIIPER, for thrust augmentation, has been studied computationally. Excessive radio frequency (RF) noise in the experimental setup had interfered with the acquired data in prior studies. New Langmuir probe measurements with reduced noise are used to gather ion densities at different positions to confirm the point of ion loss inside the setup. Numerical data from simulations is used to measure the deviation/error and estimate the accuracy of the experimental setup. Overall study is involved the following -- 1. Numerical studies using COMSOL to find the position of ion loss inside the experimental setup. 2. COMSOL simulations to ascertain the advantages of integrating HIIPER with a MN. 3. Performance evaluation of existing experimental setup after reducing excessive RF noise. It was established that maximum ions were neutralized after colliding with the walls of helicon-IEC chamber coupling. This caused the previous experimental results to show lower performance parameters of the plasma. A 27 {\%} increase is estimated in the force exerted by ions after passing through a magnetic nozzle. This estimation is based on the numerical results and will be validated through future experiments. This insight and results from comparison new Langmuir probe measurements with the trend established in prior studies confirms that further optimization of the helicon setup should enable HIIPER to be used as an attractive space propulsion system. {\copyright} 2020 The MITRE Corporation. All Rights Reserved.},
 author = {Puri, Rohan and Miley, George H. and Cai, Qiheng and Ziehm, E. P. and Patino, R. and Najam, R.},
 title = {Study of the helicon injected inertial plasma electrostatic rocket (Hiiper) integrated with a magnetic nozzle},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85097666215&doi=10.2514%2f6.2020-4083&partnerID=40&md5=6eddc84c1975ac8cdaf8df6fce3b63ab},
 booktitle = {Accelerating Space Commerce, Exploration, and New Discovery Conference, ASCEND 2020},
 year = {2020},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2020-4083}
}


@inproceedings{Puri.2021,
 abstract = {Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is an innovative magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster developed at the University of Illinois UC. It is considered a stepping stone towards nuclear fusion space propulsion system. It comprises of a two-stage mechanism -- helicon injection into an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion chamber and plasma extraction, and expulsion, using the IEC cathode grid. Two salient features of HIIPER are explained as follows. Firstly, IEC cathode grids generate a stream of electrons which neutralize the exhaust plume and prevent the space vehicle from getting charged. Secondly, the presence of a helicon bias grid at the upstream end of the quartz tube increases the most probable ion energies inside the system. Langmuir probe analysis was done at various locations inside the system to check for wall losses. Ion density trends are established by changing the axial magnetic field, IEC grid voltage and helicon bias grid voltage. Retarding Potential Analyzer (RPA) is used to measure the most probable ion energy with changing helicon bias grid voltage. A Mach probe is also used to measure ion velocity distribution with changing bias grid potential. Although it was assumed that the helicon bias grid will collimate the plasma beam and reduce wall losses, the observed trend showed only a weak effect. However, it was established that the helicon bias grid increased the most probable ion energy and flow velocity. These results provide the basis for the next experimental setup, with an optimized quartz tube, replacing the metal bellow coupling to minimize wall losses. {\copyright} 2021, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc, AIAA. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Puri, Rohan and Miley, George H. and Ziehm, E. P. and Patino, R. and Najam, R.},
 title = {Performance Analysis of HIIPER MPD Thruster},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85126755342&doi=10.2514%2f6.2021-3402&partnerID=40&md5=31f6b34a3ea0b25907eb841c64de69c5},
 keywords = {Bias voltage;Cathodes;Electrostatics;Flow velocity;Grid voltage;Helicons;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion energies;Ions;Langmuir probes;Magnetoplasma;Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters;nuclear fusion;Performances analysis;Plasma density;Quartz tubes;Space propulsion system;Stepping-stones;Velocity distribution;Wall loss},
 booktitle = {AIAA Propulsion and Energy Forum, 2021},
 year = {2021},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2021-3402}
}


@phdthesis{Puri.2021b,
 author = {Puri, Rohan},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Computational and Experimental Analysis of HIIPER MPD Propulsion System},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Puri.2022,
 abstract = {The Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER) is a space propulsion system developed at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. The HIIPER couples a helicon tube with an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion system. Its operating principle involves a helicon ionization stage followed by an electrostatic grid (IEC cathode grid) extraction stage. The helicon setup used in the HIIPER is modified to include a helicon bias grid at the upstream end of the tube. This grid is applied with a positive direct-current voltage to increase the plasma potential and the most probable ion energy of the plasma injected into the IEC fusion chamber. The IEC cathode grid in the HIIPER uses an innovative asymmetric design, graphically depicted through a computational model, that ejects a stream of electrons that accelerate the exhaust ions and simultaneously neutralize the exhaust jet. The model is also used to plot ion trajectories inside the HIIPER to identify any wall collision losses. A separate numerical study was undertaken to show augmentation of plasma kinetic energy on adding a magnetic nozzle as the final propulsion stage of the HIIPER. Experimental results were used to establish a relation between the input parameters and the ion density of the resulting plasma. Langmuir probe measurements were performed at two locations to validate corresponding computational results, indicating ion losses due to ion-wall collisions inside the helicon-IEC coupling. The results in this study add to the proof of concept of the HIIPER and allow for designing an upgrade of the propulsion system. Increasing thrust while maintaining plasma densities between 1017 and 1018 (Formula presented.) throughout the system is the current aim of HIIPER research. This study summarizes the various performance parameters of the propulsion system, along with a discussion of ongoing research and future scope. {\copyright} 2022 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor {\&} Francis Group, LLC.},
 author = {Puri, Rohan and Miley, George H. and Ziehm, E. P. and Patino, R. and Najam, R.},
 year = {2022},
 title = {Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85134197206&doi=10.1080%2f00295450.2022.2055702&partnerID=40&md5=d3d04b745e85a61203fa8edd05070264},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Collisional plasmas;Electrostatics;fusion propulsion;Fusion systems;helicon;Helicon injected inertial plasma electrostatic rocket;Helicons;HIIPER;Inertial electrostatic confinement;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusions;Ions;Kinetic energy;Kinetics;Operating principles;Plasma density;Propulsion;Propulsion system;Rockets;space propulsion;Space propulsion system;Space propulsions;Wall collision},
 pages = {S85-S95},
 volume = {208},
 number = {sup1},
 issn = {00295450},
 journal = {Nuclear Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/00295450.2022.2055702}
}


@article{Radel.2005,
 abstract = {This paper overviews the work that has been done to date toward the development of a inexpensive, reliable, and portable means to detect highly enriched uranium (HEU) and other fissile materials. The specific goals of this research include the characterization of the current inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) ion source to determine optimum conditions for pulsed IEC operation, the development of a pulsed IEC neutron source that can provide 1010 D-D neutron/s pulses, with a 108 average D-D neutron/s level, and the construction of a detector system to detect delayed neutrons generated by a uranium target being irradiated by a pulsed IEC neutron source. It is proposed that the completion of these goals will allow the construction of a proof-of-principle HEU detection system at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.},
 author = {Radel, Ross F.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Detection of highly enriched uranium using a pulsed inertial electrostatic confinement D-D fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-29244475065&partnerID=40&md5=b52f8464387aeb9b0273c709f59031df},
 keywords = {Highly enriched uranium;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion sources;Mathematical models;Monte Carlo methods;Neutron detectors;Neutron sources;Uranium},
 pages = {32--37},
 volume = {34},
 number = {1},
 issn = {08936188},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Materials Management}
}


@article{Radel.2005b,
 abstract = {The effect of high temperature (700 - 1200z°C) implantation of deuterium and helium in candidate fusion first wall materials was studied in the University of Wisconsin Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device. Tungsten coated TaC and HfC {\textquotedbl}foam{\textquotedbl}, single crystal tungsten, and high-emissivity tungsten coated {\textquotedbl}foam{\textquotedbl} were compared to previous tungsten powder metallurgy samples studied in the IEC device for the High Average Power Laser (HAPL) program. Scanning electron microscopy was performed to evaluate changes in surface morphology for various ion fluences at temperatures comparable to first wall temperatures. Single crystal tungsten was shown to exhibit less damage than polycrystalline samples at a fluence of 4xl016 He+/cm2. It was found that no significant deformations occur with deuterium implantation up to $\sim$10 18 D+/cm2 at 800°C on W-coated TaC and HfC foam samples. However, helium fluences in excess of 6x1017 He +/cm2 show extensive pore formation at 800°C and higher. These changes may have an impact on the lifetime of tungsten coatings on the first walls of inertial and magnetic confinement fusion reactors.},
 author = {Radel, Ross F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Implantation of D and He in W-coated refractory carbides},
 keywords = {Carbides;Chemical vapor infiltration;Coatings;Density (specific gravity);Deuterium;helium;High average power laser (HAPL) program;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) reactor;Ionization;Laser applications;Polycrystalline materials;Refractory materials;Refractory metal coatings;Scanning electron microscopy;Single crystals;Tungsten},
 pages = {1250--1254},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A859}
}


@article{Radel.2007,
 abstract = {The effect of high temperature (700-1200 °C) implantation of helium in candidate fusion first wall materials was studied in the University of Wisconsin Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device. Powder metallurgy tungsten, single crystal tungsten, and a W-25{\%} Re alloy were irradiated with 30-50 keV He+ ions. Scanning electron microscopy was used to evaluate changes in surface morphology for various ion fluences at temperature ranges comparable to first wall temperatures. Helium fluences in excess of 1 $\times$ 1018 He+/cm2 produce extensive pore formation at 1150 °C. These changes will have an impact on the lifetime of thin tungsten coatings on the first walls and divertors of inertial and magnetic confinement fusion reactors. {\copyright} 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Radel, Ross F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Implantation of He+ in candidate fusion first wall materials},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-34447502237&doi=10.1016%2fj.jnucmat.2007.03.119&partnerID=40&md5=7a632d6dfbdea054d4f42a892172e195},
 keywords = {Fusion reactors;helium;Ion implantation;Magnetic confinement fusion reactors;Pore formation;Radioactive materials;Scanning electron microscopy;Single crystals;Surface morphology;Tungsten coatings;Tungsten powder metallurgy},
 pages = {434--439},
 volume = {367-370 A},
 number = {SPEC. ISS},
 issn = {00223115},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Materials},
 doi = {10.1016/j.jnucmat.2007.03.119}
}


@article{Radel.2007b,
 abstract = {This paper overviews the work that has been done to date towards the development of a compact, reliable means to detect Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) and other fissile materials utilizing a pulsed Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) D-D fusion device. To date, the UWIEC device has achieved 115 kV pulses in excess of 2 ampere, with pulsed neutron rates of 1.8$\times$10 9 n/s during a 0.5 ms pulse at 10 Hz. MCNP modeling indicates that detection of samples of U-235 as small as 10 grams is achievable at current neutron production rates, and initial pulsed and steady-state HEU detection experiments have verified these results.},
 author = {Radel, Ross F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Ashley, Robert P. and Santarius, John F. and Emmert, Gilbert A. and Piefer, Gregory R. and Sorebo, J. H. and Boris, David R. and Egle, Brian J. and Zenobia, Samuel J. and Alderson, Eric C. and Donovan, David C.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Detection of highly enriched uranium using a pulsed D-D fusion source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36348999740&doi=10.13182%2fFST52-1087&partnerID=40&md5=81a7ecdac39105ef66b772a59d632f72},
 keywords = {Electrostatics;Fissile materials;Fusion reactions;Neutron rates;Neutrons;Rate constants;Reliability theory;Uranium},
 pages = {1087--1091},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST52-1087}
}


@phdthesis{Radel.2007c,
 abstract = {The research in this thesis examines two applications of a pulsed Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (EEC) fusion device: detection of highly enriched uranium (HEU) and tungsten surface damage studies. In order to complete this thesis, a pulsed IEC device was developed that is capable of generating converging ion pulses with widths ranging from 0.1 to 5 ms at frequencies between 1 and 50 Hz. This device operated at cathode voltages as high as 120 kV, and with D+ currents in excess of 6 A and He+ currents as high as 1 A. Pulsed D-D neutron production rates as high as 4.7x 10 9 n/s were measured during 110 gs pulses at 5 Hz, with a cathode voltage of 94 kV and pulse current of 4.8 A. The first project used the EEC device as a pulsed D-D neutron source to detect HEU. An MCNP5 model was developed that accurately models the time-dependent behavior of pulsed IEC neutron production and the associated HEU detection hardware. This model aided in the construction of a 3He detector-based system capable of detecting delayed neutrons. Using this hardware, pulsed D-D neutron production rates as low as 4x108 n/s were used to detect the presence of a 10 gram sample of uranium-235. Delayed neutron production was found to increase linearly with fusion neutron rates. The second project studied the effects of high energy He+ and D+ implantation on the surface morphology of high-temperature tungsten, for use as a fusion first-wall material and IEC cathodes. Irradiations were performed with 0.2--2 ms He+ pulses of up to 1 ampere at rep rates ranging from 1--25 Hz. Pulsed helium implantation of polycrystalline tungsten was performed at 1,150°C to fluences of 1x10 -8 to 1x10-9 He+/cm 2 in 1 ms pulses at 25 Hz. Micrographs of these samples revealed increased surface damage at all fluences compared to steady-state irradiation. The samples also experienced a measurable change in mass. The pulsed IEC fusion device developed at the University of Wisconsin is a versatile piece of equipment. It has been used both to detect special nuclear material and as an irradiation facility for fusion first wall materials research.},
 author = {Radel, Ross F.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Detection of Highly Enriched Uranium and Tungsten Surface Damage Studies Using a Pulsed Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 doi = {10.13182/FST52-1087},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Ramzanpour.2017,
 abstract = {The radial dependent potential and neutron production rate in spherical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) devices is investigated. The electrostatic potential is determined by solving the Poisson equation for various deuteron and electron distribution functions. The fusion reaction rates are determined using energy distribution function. Also, dependence of potential structure and neutron production rate on some important parameters as the ion and electron convergence, working pressure, kinetic energy of the secondary electrons emitted from the cathode and the fraction of secondary electrons drawn inside the cathode are studied. Total produced neutrons as a function of input power at different working conditions are also obtained. {\copyright} 2016, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science.},
 author = {Ramzanpour, M. A. and Pahlavani, M. R.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Analysis of the radial potential structure and neutron production rate in the spherical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices},
 keywords = {Deuteron and electron distribution functions;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);neutron production rate;Potential structure;The Poisson equation},
 pages = {63--69},
 volume = {91},
 number = {1},
 issn = {09731458},
 journal = {Indian Journal of Physics},
 doi = {10.1007/s12648-016-0891-0}
}


@article{Ramzanpour.2018,
 abstract = {The correlation between the neutron production rate and fuel species in a spherical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device is investigated by solving the Poisson equation for various ion and electron distribution functions. The fuel ion energy distribution function is determined at each radial point. The fusion reaction rate is evaluated from the energy distribution function. The dependence of the neutron production rate (NPR) on some important parameters, like the ion convergence, the broadening of the distributions in the energy space, working pressure and fuel species, are also investigated. Compared with the IECF device with D--D, numerical calculations show that by increasing the percentage of tritium in the D--T mixture fuel the neutron production rate grows significantly. {\copyright} 2017 The Physical Society of the Republic of China (Taiwan)},
 author = {Ramzanpour, M. A. and Pahlavani, M. R.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Evaluation of the neutron production rate using D--D and D--T fuel in an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 keywords = {inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Ion and electron distribution functions;neutron production rate;Potential structure},
 pages = {23--29},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {05779073},
 journal = {Chinese Journal of Physics},
 doi = {10.1016/j.cjph.2017.11.011}
}


@article{Ranson.2020,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) is a method of confining and heating a plasma at benchtop scales to sufficient energies for nuclear fusion to occur. Ion velocity and flow direction were measured in an IEC discharge using laser induced fluorescence (LIF) on argon ions. A cathode of two parallel rings, with a common axis of symmetry, resulted in predominant discharge beams, otherwise known as microchannels, along this axis. The device was operated in the abnormal glow discharge regime where both current and voltage increase monotonically, replicating a conventional high voltage IEC device. It was found that argon ions accelerated and flowed outward from the midpoint between the rings along the axis; we have labeled this ion motion as being divergent. The predominant direction of ion flow in the discharge is opposite to the conventional ion focus model, where the discharge at the cathode center is assumed to be the result of ion flow toward it from outside of the cathode. An ion sheath model is shown to produce a virtual anode at the axial midpoint between the rings. The model also shows that ions within the virtual anode are accelerated outward with a spatial velocity profile that replicates those measured using LIF. {\copyright} 2020 Author(s).},
 author = {Ranson, Nicholas Ennio and Pigeon, V. and Claire, N. and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Measurements and modeling of ion divergence from a gridded inertial electrostatic confinement device using laser induced fluorescence},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85094182894&doi=10.1063%2f5.0002916&partnerID=40&md5=5e60037bd3f4919550fe3ecae10cb3d5},
 keywords = {Abnormal glow discharge;Anodes;Argon lasers;Axis of symmetry;Cathodes;Fluorescence;Glow discharges;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Laser induced fluorescence;Laser optics;Laser produced plasmas;Measurements and modeling;Plasma sheaths;Spatial velocity;Voltage increase},
 volume = {27},
 number = {10},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0002916}
}


@phdthesis{Ranson.2023,
 author = {Ranson, Nicholas Ennio},
 year = {2023},
 title = {A study of electrostatic nuclear fusion devices as a low pressure hollow cathode discharge },
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Rasmussen.2020,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement offers a relatively simple and cost-effective means of generating fusion plasmas for research and industrial applications. Here, we present the experimental setup and discharge characteristics of the inertial electrostatic confinement device at the Dept. of Physics, Technical Univ. of Denmark. Special features of this setup include a cylindrical anode and the novel use of 3D printed soccerball-like cathode grids of different sizes. Measurements with these grids show 25{\%} higher fusion neutron rates than with manually manufactured grids with larger wire spacings. Additionally, we observe significantly higher neutron rates with smaller grids, with spherical rather than cylindrical cathodes, and when using the vacuum chamber, rather than a second spherical grid, as the anode. Ion-orbit simulations predict a core density in the ion distribution in good agreement with optical measurements, confirming that asymmetries in the cathode grid potential prevent a fully convergent ion flow. The simulations also demonstrate that the asymmetry of the electric field induced by the voltage stalk lowers the characteristic ion recirculation by a factor of four, and we discuss measures to circumvent this. Comparing measurements and simulations conducted with a spherical and cylindrical grid reveals tentative evidence that fusion reactivity is highly core-localized, pointing to ion-neutral fusion as the dominant reaction. We also quantify the thermionic and impact-induced secondary electron emission in the device, showing that only the latter can potentially suppress the ion current during normal operation. {\copyright} 2020 Author(s).},
 author = {Rasmussen, Jesper and Jensen, T. and Korsholm, S. B. and Kihm, N. E. and Ohms, F. K. and Gockenbach, M. and Schmidt, B. S. and Goss, E.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Characterization of fusion plasmas in the cylindrical DTU inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85090157377&doi=10.1063%2f5.0013013&partnerID=40&md5=296624615cabd6720f7e335367ec98ec},
 keywords = {3D printers;Anodes;Cathodes;Cost effectiveness;Cost-effective means;Cylindrical grids;Discharge characteristics;Electric discharges;Electric field induced;Fusion reactions;Industrial research;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ions;Optical data processing;Optical measurement;Secondary electron emissions;Secondary emission;Spheres},
 volume = {27},
 number = {8},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/5.0013013}
}


@article{Rasmussen.2022,
 abstract = {At the Technical University of Denmark (DTU), we have in recent years acquired or developed three small plasma devices. These consist of a small tokamak (NORTH), an inertial electrostatic confinement device, and a linear plasma device. This has enabled a restructuring of our teaching in plasma physics and nuclear fusion, allowing courses with a dedicated experimental focus. Here we describe the use of these devices in our teaching of fusion plasma physics, with particular emphasis on their integration in a new experimental Master's level course. We also present examples of BSc and MSc projects completed at these experiments and offer some didactic reflections on student learning during our courses and projects. Our experience so far has validated the potential for student-driven activities at all levels to make useful scientific contributions to the experimental study of laboratory plasmas. {\copyright} 2022 European Physical Society.},
 author = {Rasmussen, Jesper and Grulke, O. and Nielsen, S. K.},
 year = {2022},
 title = {From theory to hands-on: teaching experimental plasma physics using small plasma devices at DTU},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85140382068&doi=10.1088%2f1361-6404%2fac93c4&partnerID=40&md5=bb0d567904e09b674c988dfe36c20449},
 keywords = {Confined plasmas;Electrostatically confined plasma;electrostatically confined plasmas;Engineering education;Engineering physics;Experimental plasma physic;experimental plasma physics;Fusion Engineering;Fusion engineering physic;fusion engineering physics;fusion technology;magnetically confined plasmas;Magnetoplasma;Physics education;Plasma physic education;Plasma physics;plasma physics education;Students;Teaching},
 volume = {43},
 number = {6},
 issn = {01430807},
 journal = {European Journal of Physics},
 doi = {10.1088/1361-6404/ac93c4}
}


@phdthesis{Raymond.2020,
 author = {Raymond, Steven},
 year = {2020},
 title = {Progress on the Houghton College Fusor},
 school = {{Houghton College}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@article{Rider.1995,
 abstract = {The suitability of various implementations of inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) systems for use as D-T, D-D, D-3He, 3He-3He, p-11B, and p-6Li reactors has been examined, and several fundamental flaws in the concept have been discovered. Bremsstrahlung losses for all of these fuels have been calculated in a general fashion which applies not only to IEC systems but also to most other fusion schemes; these calculations indicate that bremsstrahlung losses will be prohibitively large for 3He-3He, p-11B, and p-6Li reactors and will be a considerable fraction of the fusion power for D-3He and D-D reactors. Further calculations show that it does not appear possible for the dense central region of a reactor-grade IEC device to maintain significantly non-Maxwellian ion distributions or to keep two different ion species at significantly different temperatures, in contradiction with earlier claims made about such systems. Since the ions form a Maxwellian distribution with a mean energy not very much smaller than the electrostatic well depth, ions in the energetic tail of the distribution will be lost at rates greatly in excess of the fusion rate. Even by using one of the best electron confinement systems proposed for such devices, a polyhedral cusp magnetic field, and by making exceedingly optimistic assumptions about the performance of that confinement system, the electron losses from the machine prove to be intolerable for all fuels except perhaps DT. In order for IEC systems to be used as fusion reactors, it will be necessary to find methods to circumvent these problems. {\copyright} 1995 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Rider, Todd H.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {A general critique of inertiai-electrostatic confinement fusion systems},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0141946267&doi=10.1063%2f1.871273&partnerID=40&md5=d6e11cb0e61da3ec8d49ef4fd394e582},
 pages = {1853--1872},
 volume = {2},
 number = {6},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.871273}
}


@phdthesis{Rider.1995b,
 author = {Rider, Todd H.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {Fundamental Limitations on Plasma Fusion Systems Not in Thermodynamic Equilbrium},
 school = {{Massachusetts Institute of Technology}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Rider.1997,
 author = {Rider, Todd H.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Fundamental limitations on plasma fusion systems not in thermodynamic equilibrium},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.872556},
 pages = {1039--1046},
 volume = {4},
 number = {4},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.872556}
}


@misc{RockfordTechnologyAssociates.1995,
 date = {1995},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Power Source. Prepared for Electric Power Research Institute Palo Alto},
 institution = {{Rockford Technology Associates}}
}


@misc{RockfordTechnologyAssociates.1995b,
 date = {1995},
 title = {Studies of Alternate Concepts Fusion: Summary of Progress on Inertial Electrostatic Confinement. Prepared for Los Alamos National Laboratory. Final Report},
 number = {Y60410015-3C},
 institution = {{Rockford Technology Associates}}
}


@patent{ROEHEOLIVER.20020322,
 author = {Roehe, Oliver},
 year = {2002/03/22},
 title = {Discharge grid, used for electrical neutron source, comprises grid made from electrically-conducting flat joining parts, to form reaction volume},
 url = {https://lens.org/003-091-838-865-960},
 number = {DE 10212825 C1}
}


@patent{Rogers.2010,
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Modular Apparatus for Confining a Plasma: US Patent},
 number = {US9082517B2}
}


@patent{Rogers.2016,
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Fusion Energy Device within internal Ion Source: US Patent},
 number = {US20160093406A1}
}


@article{Rogers.2018,
 abstract = {A brief history of Polywell progress is recounted. The present PIC simulation explains why the most recent Polywell fusion reactor failed to produce fusion energy. Synchronized variations of multiple parameters would require DC power supplies, not available in historic model testing. Even with DC power, the simulation showed that the trapping of cold electrons would ruin plasma stability during start-up. A theoretical solution to this trapping problem was found in Russian literature describing diocotron-pumping of electrons out of a plasma trap at Kharkov Institute. In Polywell, diocotron-pumping required matching the depth of the potential-well to the electron-beam current falling on a special aperture installed in one of the electromagnets. With diocotron-pumping the reactor was simulated to reach steady-state, maximum-power operation in a few milliseconds of simulated time. These improvements, validated in simulating small-scale DD reactors, were scaled up by a factor of 30 to simulate a large, net-power reactor burning p~+~11B fuel. Power-balance was estimated from a textbook formula for fusion power density by numerically integrating the power density. Unity power-balance required the size of the p~+~11B reactor to be somewhat larger than ITER. {\copyright} 2017, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.},
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {A Polywell Fusion Reactor Designed for Net Power Generation},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85035767710&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-017-0147-9&partnerID=40&md5=c1493670863b22220a0b5912fbdd9faa},
 keywords = {Control sequences;DC power supplies;Electron beam pumping;Electron-beam current;Fusion power reactors;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Multiple parameters;Particle-in-cell (PIC) plasma simulation;Particle-in-cell plasmas;Photonic integration technology;Plasma simulation;Plasma stability;Polywell fusion power reactor;Pumps;Scale modeling;Scale-model testing;Start-up control-sequence;Theoretical solutions},
 pages = {1--20},
 volume = {37},
 number = {1},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-017-0147-9}
}


@article{Rogers.2018b,
 abstract = {A brief history of Polywell progress is recounted. The present PIC simulation explains why the most recent Polywell fusion reactor failed to produce fusion energy. Synchronized variations of multiple parameters would require DC power supplies, not available in historic model testing. Even with DC power, the simulation showed that the trapping of cold electrons would ruin plasma stability during start-up. A theoretical solution to this trapping problem was found in Russian literature describing diocotron-pumping of electrons out of a plasma trap at Kharkov Institute. In Polywell, diocotron-pumping required matching the depth of the potential-well to the electron-beam current falling on a special aperture installed in one of the electromagnets. With diocotron-pumping the reactor was simulated to reach steady-state, maximum-power operation in a few milliseconds of simulated time. These improvements, validated in simulating small-scale DD reactors, were scaled up by a factor of 30 to simulate a large, net-power reactor burning p~+~11B fuel. Power-balance was estimated from a textbook formula for fusion power density by numerically integrating the power density. Unity power-balance required the size of the p~+~11B reactor to be somewhat larger than ITER.},
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {A Polywell Fusion Reactor Designed for Net Power Generation},
 pages = {1--20},
 volume = {37},
 number = {1},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-017-0147-9}
}


@patent{Rogers.2018d,
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Apparatus and Method for controlling a Plasma Fusion Reactor: US Patent},
 number = {US10204709B2}
}


@patent{ROGERSJOELGUILD.20080618,
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2008/06/18},
 title = {Modular apparatus for confining a plasma},
 url = {https://lens.org/155-842-314-218-187},
 number = {US 9082517 B2}
}


@patent{ROGERSJOELGUILD.20080618b,
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2008/06/18},
 title = {Modular Apparatus for Confining a Plasma},
 url = {https://lens.org/084-240-336-574-180},
 number = {US 2010/0284501 A1}
}


@patent{ROGERSJOELGUILD.20140928,
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2014/09/28},
 title = {Fusion energy device with internal ion source},
 url = {https://lens.org/061-426-049-668-919},
 number = {US 9406405 B2}
}


@patent{ROGERSJOELGUILD.20161026,
 author = {Rogers, Joel G.},
 year = {2016/10/26},
 title = {Apparatus and Method for Controlling a Plasma Fusion Reactor},
 url = {https://lens.org/022-159-493-163-679},
 number = {US 2018/0114603 A1}
}


@article{Rosenberg.1992,
 abstract = {It is shown that, for a moderately long time scale, two-body collisions can actually help in maintaining a non-Maxwellian ion velocity distribution in a plasma. This effect occurs when the ions have orbits large enough to transit spatial regions with different physical parameters in a single collision time. The effect is applied to ions confined in a spherically convergent ion focus (SCIF), where collisions at the edge of a spherical potential well help maintain convergent non-Maxwellian flow in the rest of the device. {\copyright} 1992 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Rosenberg, M. and Krall, Nicholas Anthony},
 year = {1992},
 title = {The effect of collisions in maintaining a non-Maxwellian plasma distribution in a spherically convergent ion focus},
 pages = {1788--1794},
 volume = {4},
 number = {7},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids B},
 doi = {10.1063/1.860034}
}


@misc{Rosenberg.1992b,
 author = {Rosenberg, M. and Krall, Nicholas Anthony},
 date = {1992},
 title = {Collisional Relaxation of the non-Maxwellian Plasma Distribution in a Polywell},
 number = {EMC2-0692-03/AD-A257 651},
 institution = {{Energy Matter Conversion Corp}}
}


@article{Roshani.2017,
 abstract = {Purpose: Gamma spectrum of a cement sample is not straightforward to analyze as a result of peak overlapping produced by Compton effect of gamma rays radiated from activated elements in the neutron activation process and also because of the change into the neutron energy spectrum in the target sample during activation. Methods: Artificial neural network (ANN) is an excellent solution for complex and nonlinear systems. Consequently, the use of ANN for quantitative analysis of major cement elements including Ca, Si, Al, and Fe would be very advantageous. Iranian inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device is a fast, monoenergetic and steady neutron generator. It was simulated as a high-energy neutron source for performing neutron activation analysis. In the present study, a library of 29 members of delayed gamma-ray spectra of knowing cement samples were generated via MCNPX version 2.7. Specific photo-peaks related to Ca, Si, Al and Fe obtained from these spectra were used as inputs for ANN (21 of them for training and 8 for testing). Then, using MLP architecture, an ANN model has been presented to model the system to predict the percentages of the elements in cement. The ANN model is optimized to have only a hidden layer with five neurons. Results: The comparison between modeling data and results of proposed MLP network shows that there is a good consistency between them. The MAE of training set for Ca, Si and Fe outputs were 0.0351, 0.0656 and 0.0660, respectively, and the MAE of testing set for mentioned outputs were 0.0997, 0.3046 and 0.8699, respectively. Conclusion: Overall, it can be concluded that the defined dispensable errors show that this modeling is a good one as a prediction tool for the mentioned purpose. {\copyright} 2017, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences; China Nuclear Electronics and Nuclear Detection Society and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.},
 author = {Roshani, G. H. and Eftekhari-Zadeh, E. and Shama, F. and Salehizadeh, A.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Combined application of neutron activation analysis using IECF device and neural network for prediction of cement elements},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85070064598&doi=10.1007%2fs41605-017-0025-z&partnerID=40&md5=0e1b4a43af38350e28b1870c27581c52},
 keywords = {Artificial neural network;Cement;IR-IECF device;MCNPX;Neutron activation analysis},
 volume = {1},
 number = {2},
 issn = {25099930},
 journal = {Radiation Detection Technology and Methods},
 doi = {10.1007/s41605-017-0025-z}
}


@phdthesis{Rouwette.2015,
 author = {Rouwette, Sander M. M.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Modelling of the Ion Birth Radius in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Ryan.2007,
 author = {Meyer, Ryan M.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement: Theoretical and Experimental Studies of Spherical Devices},
 school = {{University of Missouri-Columbia}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Sadighzadeh.2014,
 abstract = {Artificial neural network (ANN) is applied to predict the number of produced neutrons from IR-IECF device in wide discharge current and voltage ranges. Experimentally, discharge current from 20 to 100 mA had been tuned by deuterium gas pressure and cathode voltage had been changed from $-$20 to $-$82 kV (maximum voltage of the used supply). The maximum neutron production rate (NPR) of 1.46 $\times$ 10 7 n/s had occurred when the voltage was $-$82 kV and the discharge current was 48 mA. The back-propagation algorithm is used for training of the proposed multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network structure. The obtained results show that the proposed ANN model has achieved good agreement with the experimental data. Results show that NPR of 1.855 $\times$ 10 8 n/s can be achieved in voltage and current of 125 kV and 45 mA, respectively. This prediction shows 52{\%} increment in maximum voltage of power supply. Also, the optimum discharge current can increase 1270{\%} NPR.},
 author = {Sadighzadeh, A. and Salehizadeh, A. and Mohammadzadeh, M. and Shama, F. and Setayeshi, S. and Feghhi, S. A. H. and Sadati, S. M. and Rezaei, M. and {Haji Ebrahimi}, E. and Roshani, G. H.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Prediction of Neutron Yield of IR-IECF Facility in High Voltages Using Artificial Neural Network},
 url = {http://www.hindawi.com/journals/je/2014/798160/},
 pages = {1--7},
 volume = {2014},
 journal = {Journal of Engineering},
 doi = {10.1155/2014/798160}
}


@inproceedings{Sakai.2002,
 abstract = {In this paper, we study the mechanism of a self-maintaining discharge in the Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) with D2 gas. We developed a 1-D particle code with Monte Carlo collision scheme including atomic and molecular processes of ion, energetic neutral, and electron impact based on the PDS-1 code. Also we developed the energy dependent transparency model of the cathode, and applied constant discharge current control to simulate a steady discharge. As electrons are accelerated quickly just outside of the cathode, electron impact ionization hardly occurred outside the cathode. Therefore, the quantity of D2+ supplied by electron impact ionization is not enough to maintain a discharge. From the simulation, we found that D2+ impact charge-exchange and D20 impact re-ionization contribute greatly to maintain a discharge.},
 author = {Sakai, T. and Noborio, Kazuyuki and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Analysis of discharge characteristics of the inertial electrostatic confinement fusion using a particle code with Monte Carlo collision scheme},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0036371161&partnerID=40&md5=7cb2f143fefdeb36409569b53bbed2b4},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Computer simulation;Electric currents;Electric discharges;Electric field effects;Electrons;Impact ionization;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);Plasma confinement;Plasma theory},
 urldate = {22 January 2002 through 25 January 2002},
 pages = {209--212},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 19th IEEE/IPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. 19th SOFE},
 year = {2002},
 address = {Atlantic City, NJ, USA},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2002.1027677}
}


@article{Sakharov.2001,
 author = {Sakharov, Andrei D.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {A D Sakharov's referee report on O A Lavrent'ev's paper},
 url = {http://stacks.iop.org/1063-7869/44/i=8/a=A18?key=crossref.08f2e7095ff5d7cc0713627e1675ca26},
 pages = {865},
 volume = {44},
 number = {8},
 journal = {Physics-Uspekhi},
 doi = {10.1070/PU2001v044n08ABEH001123}
}


@phdthesis{Salden.2014,
 author = {Salden, A.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {Can Doppler spectral analysis replace probe measurements , to ascertain the potential profile in a fusor ?},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@article{Salehizadeh.2021,
 abstract = {One of the most important characteristics of the IEC device is performing of advanced fusion reactions without radioactive products. In this work, the IEC device is simulated based on the primary conditions similar to the UW-IEC device with 3He as working gas using Particle in Cell (PIC) method for 7, 5, and 1.4 mA Ion Injection Currents (IICs). Once the different 3He plasma species have stabilized, the results show that on average, the number of ions inside the device and cathode increases by 67.5{\%} and 57.3{\%}, respectively, whereas the number of electrons increases just by 3{\%}. The results show that nearly all the electrons in the device accumulate inside the cathode and the ions oscillate around the center of device. The obtained results show that the cathodic current for 1.4 mA IIC is comparable with that of measured by the UW-IEC device with 8{\%} difference. The simulations also show 500 s$-$1 fusion reaction rates, which is very close to the measured value of 482 s$-$1. These results approve the validity of simulation. By calculating the electric field and potential, the number and exact location of nested virtual anodes and cathodes which are of important parameters for confinement quality are obtained. Also, this validated simulation could be used in future works in order to optimize the IEC device and its fusion reaction rate without any more experiments. {\copyright} 2021},
 author = {Salehizadeh, A. and Nasrabadi, M. N.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Modeling of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device processes for 3He--3He interactions},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85102407979&doi=10.1016%2fj.vacuum.2021.110171&partnerID=40&md5=1529ae90d3144bddfa24bdbc70d50677},
 keywords = {{\$}+3{\$}/He;3he--3he interaction;3He--3He interactions;Advanced fusion;Anodes;Cathodes;Electric fields;Fusion reaction rates;Fusion reactions;IEC device;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Injection currents;Ion injection;Ions;Nested virtual anode and cathode;Nested virtual anodes and cathodes;Particle in cell method;Reaction rates},
 volume = {188},
 issn = {0042207X},
 journal = {Vacuum},
 doi = {10.1016/j.vacuum.2021.110171}
}


@article{SALINGAROS.1995,
 abstract = {The interaction mechanism between the plasma and magnetic field in a tokamak does not provide complete magnetic confinement as is usually imagined. Also, the toroidal geometry itself is not particularly well suited for containing a hot plasma. Qualitative arguments reveal an intrinsic superiority of the inertial confinement spherical geometry over any geometry of magnetic confinement for fusion purposes. Moreover, from the point of view of applications, spherical devices such as the inertial electrostatic confinement device and the inertial confinement fusion-spherical pinch are giving immediate spin-offs of industrial interest.},
 author = {SALINGAROS, N. A.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {A CRITICAL COMPARISON BETWEEN MAGNETIC AND INERTIAL CONFINEMENT SCHEMES AND THEIR GEOMETRIES},
 keywords = {INERTIAL CONFINEMENT SPHERICAL  GEOMETRY;Magnetic confinement;Plasma;SPHERICAL PINCH;TOROIDAL GEOMETRY},
 pages = {230--236},
 volume = {27},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST95-A30385}
}


@article{Samarian.2005,
 abstract = {Here we present a novel use of fine dust for diagnostic measurements in the sheath of a planar rf discharge and in the inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) plasma. Since dust charge is a function of a number of plasma parameters, and the dust charge adjusts itself to changes in plasma conditions instantaneously, dust particles may be used as an ideal diagnostic tool. A major advantage of such a diagnostic approach is its simplicity as the only measurement of a position of a dust particle or its motion after a perturbation is necessary. This technique only requires access to a discharge chamber, dust particles, a laser to illuminate them and a camera to capture the motion of the dust. The dependences of the sheath profiles on the discharge pressure and power have been determined. The radial potential profiles in a cylindrically- symmetrical capacitively-coupled rf discharge and in an IEC plasma were obtained. The direction of the ion flux in the radial IEC discharge was found. {\copyright} 2005 IOP Publishing Ltd.},
 author = {Samarian, A. A. and James, B. W.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Dust as fine electrostatic probes for plasma diagnostic},
 keywords = {Dust;Dust charge;Electrostatics;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Parameter estimation;Perturbation techniques;Plasma diagnostics;Plasma theory;Probes},
 pages = {B629-B639},
 volume = {47},
 number = {12 B},
 issn = {07413335},
 journal = {Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0741-3335/47/12B/S46}
}


@inproceedings{Santarius.1994,
 author = {Santarius, John F. and Simmons, K. H. and Emmert, Gilbert A.},
 title = {Modelling Inertial Electrostatic-Confinement Fusion Devices},
 pages = {1740},
 volume = {39},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Santarius.1995,
 author = {Santarius, John F. and Simmons, K. H.},
 title = {Performance of PolywellTM InertialElectrostatic Confinement for Applications},
 pages = {258},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 year = {1995}
}


@article{Santarius.2005,
 abstract = {In Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) devices, a voltage difference between concentric, nearly transparent spherical grids accelerates ions to fusion-relevant velocities. The University of Wisconsin (UW) operates two IEC devices: a cylindrical aluminum chamber and a spherical, water-cooled, stainless-steel chamber, with a power supply capable of 75 mA and 200 kV. The research program aims to generate fusion reaction products for various applications, including protons for creating radioisotopes for nuclear medicine and neutrons for detecting clandestine materials. Most IEC devices worldwide, including the UW devices, presently operate primarily in a pressure range (1-10 mtorr) that allows ions to make only a few passes through the core before they charge exchange and lose substantial energy or they collide with cathode grid wires. It is believed that fusion rates can be raised by operating at a pressure where neutral gas does not impede ion flow, and a helicon ion source has been developed to explore operation at pressures of $\sim$0.05 mtorr. The UW IEC research group uses proton detectors, neutron detectors, residual gas analyzers, and spectroscopic diagnostics. New diagnostic techniques have also been developed, including eclipse disks to localize proton production and chordwires to estimate ion fluxes using power balance.},
 author = {Santarius, John F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Ashley, Robert P. and Boris, David R. and Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar and Piefer, Gregory R. and Radel, Ross F. and Radel, I. E. and Wehmeyer, Alex L.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Overview of University of Wisconsin inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion research},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-20844434491&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A857&partnerID=40&md5=9abcd1e3d1cee1c3af22938bf0884ccb},
 keywords = {Cathode grid wires;Cathodes;Electric potential;Electrostatics;Energy dissipation;Gas fuel analysis;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Ion implantation;Neutron detectors;Neutron sources;Proton detectors;Protons;Radioisotopes;Residual gas analyzers},
 pages = {1238--1244},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A857}
}


@misc{Satsangi.1993,
 author = {Satsangi, Ann J. and Tzonev, I. V.},
 date = {1993},
 title = {Light Measurement Experiments. First Specialist Workshop on IEC Fusion},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@inproceedings{Satsangi.1994,
 abstract = {An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion power source has the potential to support a very efficient nuclear propulsion system. High power--to--weight ratios, necessary for manned travel beyond our moon, are obtainable with an IEC power source because of the grid structure is relatively light weight. A preliminary design study of a system using an IEC power source has been done by integrating an IEC device, designed to burn d--3He, with a Direct Energy Converter (DEC), an electrical system, and an electrical thruster unit. (Miley 1993a) Further investigation of this design will be presented. These subsequent studies were aimed at addressing several key issues which arose during the course of the original design work. The most important result is the discovery that a pulsed power version of the IEC offers a high fusion energy gain, giving an improved specific power for the design.},
 author = {Satsangi, Ann J. and Miley, George H. and Javedani, Jalal B. and Nakashima, Hideki and Yamamoto, Yasushi},
 title = {Innovative Technology for an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion Propulsion Unit},
 urldate = {10/5/2023},
 pages = {1297--1302},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings : AIP Conf. Proc},
 year = {1994},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2950139}
}


@inproceedings{Satsangi.1994b,
 abstract = {A variety of potential applications exist for a portable neutron generator with an output of MeV neutrons at a rate of 106-108 per second that can be switched on and off, can emit approximately monoenergetic fusion neutrons, and can be self-calibrating. The development of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion-based neutron generator has been proposed to meet these needs. The IEC device consists of a spherical stainless steel vacuum chamber with a concentric highly transparent spherical conducting grid suspended inside. The isotropic, approximately monoenergetic, neutron output of the IEC is one of its primary advantages. Present levels of operation of IEC devices have produced a record output of 3.5$\times$106 neutrons steady state. Improvements can be made in this output level by increasing the voltage and current.},
 author = {Satsangi, Ann J. and Miley, George H. and Javedani, Jalal B. and Gu, Yibin B. and Heck, P.},
 title = {Overview of IEC neutron source studies},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0028740691&partnerID=40&md5=01f28bf2411aefedd056456b89ef342e},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric currents;Electric discharges;Electrostatics;Fusion reactions;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ionization;Isotropy;Neutron generator;Neutrons;Nuclear physics;Vacuum chamber},
 urldate = {6 June 1994 through 8 June 1994},
 pages = {105},
 booktitle = {IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science},
 year = {1994},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1994.588779}
}


@phdthesis{Satsangi.1996,
 author = {Satsangi, Ann J.},
 year = {1996},
 title = {Light Intensity Measurements of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Plasma},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Schauer.,
 author = {Schauer, M. M. and Umstadter, K. R. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 title = {The Penning fusion experiment---ions},
 pages = {425--434},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1302144}
}


@inproceedings{Schauer.1995,
 abstract = {An experiment is being conducted at Los Alamos to explore the possibility of using a Penning trap as a fusion confinement device. Penning traps have excellent confinement times but are limited to non-neutral plasmas and, hence, to relatively low densities. The goal of this experiment is to demonstrate electron densities greater than the Brillouin density at the trap center by filling it with a beam of electrons occupying a restricted region of phase space. Cold electrons injected along the magnetic field axis with nearly zero angular momentum fall into the spherical, quadratic potential provided by the hyperbolic trap electrodes and magnetic field and form a beam distribution oscillating through the trap center. The trap is presently being operated with trapping voltages up to 15 kV and magnetic fields up to 0.27 T. An electron probe beam is scattered off the trapped electrons and imaged on a microchannel plate and phosphor screen located in the fringe of the trap magnetic field. Images of probe beam deflections caused by trapped electron clouds are presented and related to electron cloud densities. Maximum densities achieved and future experimental directions are discussed. $\backslash$vskip $\backslash$baselineskip {\^{}}$\backslash$astThis work supported by U.S. DOE Contract W-7405-ENG-36.},
 author = {Schauer, M. M. and Mitchell, T. B. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 title = {PFX -- The Los Alamos Penning Trap Fusion Experiment},
 pages = {4R.04},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1995}
}


@article{Schauer.1997,
 abstract = {We describe an experiment to produce high density pure electron plasmas in a cryogenic Penning trap. The apparatus and its operation are described in detail. A brief summary of data acquired to date and its interpretation are given. Possible uses and future work are mentioned. {\copyright} 1997 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Schauer, M. M. and Mitchell, T. B. and Holzscheiter, M. H. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Electron Penning trap for the generation of high density non-neutral plasmas},
 pages = {3340--3345},
 volume = {68},
 number = {9},
 issn = {00346748},
 journal = {Review of Scientific Instruments},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1148294}
}


@misc{Schauer.1997b,
 author = {Schauer, M. M. and Mitchell, T. B. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 date = {1997},
 title = {Physics Division Progress Report January 1, 1995-December 31,1996},
 number = {LA-13355-PR/UC-910},
 institution = {{Los Alamos National Lab}}
}


@book{Schubert.2008,
 year = {2008},
 title = {Detection of Liquid Explosives and Flammable Agents in Connection with Terrorism: Nato Science for Peace and Security Series - B: Physics and Biophysics},
 publisher = {{Springer Dordrecht}},
 isbn = {978-1-4020-8464-5},
 editor = {Schubert, Hiltmar and Kuznetsov, Andrey},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-4020-8466-9}
}


@inproceedings{Sedwick.2006,
 abstract = {A fusion-based space power concept using a recently proposed multi-grid Inertial Electrostatic Confinement scheme is presented. It is shown that using multiple grids can keep individual ion beams focused and increase the residence time of the ions in the system by several orders of magnitude. Methods are discussed for analytical development of electrostatic potential distributions within the system, and a framework is presented to investigate system parameter optimization. Use of a cusped magnetic field in the core of the device to confine neutralizing electrons is discussed and its performance evaluated. Ion thermalization impacts and potential solutions are presented based on previous work, and the impact of high angle scattering in the core is presented. Lawson's criterion is applied to this system, with alternate forms derived to demonstrate an impact on core focusing requirements. A method of implementing direct energy conversion is presented that can be applied to fuels having products with different energies. Finally, the effect of long duration confinement on the evolution of collective mode instabilities is discussed, along with an experiment that is under development to measure both the increased confinement and the collective mode onset directly.},
 author = {Sedwick, Raymond J. and Mcguire, Thomas J. and Dietrich, Carl C. and Warner, N. Z. and Zayas, D. A.},
 title = {Multi-grid IEC fusion for space power and propulsion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-34249083077&partnerID=40&md5=55b2c7344ee5a7c56721aaa8682067d7},
 keywords = {Electrostatic accelerators;ion beams;Multi-grid Inertial Electrostatic Confinement scheme;Optimization;Parameter estimation;Spacecraft propulsion;System parameter optimization},
 urldate = {9 July 2006 through 12 July 2006},
 pages = {718--735},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-038-3},
 booktitle = {42nd AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit},
 year = {2006}
}


@inproceedings{Sedwick.2010,
 abstract = {An Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Fusion system is presented that uses multiple concentric grids to confine counter-streaming ion beams to well-defined paths and a permanent magnet core as an electron trap to neutralize these beams at the center of the device. The system design addresses several shortcomings identified with IEC systems, including rapid thermalization at timescales that are shorter than for fusion. Current focus is on the proposed electron confinement mechanism using VORPAL to conduct Particle-In- Cell (PIC) simulations. Modeling of the complex grid and field structures is performed in COMSOL Multiphysics and the problems and partial solutions of porting this into the VORPAL environment are discussed. Copyright {\copyright} 2010 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Sedwick, Raymond J. and Tessa, L. L.},
 title = {Magnetic core multi-grid Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84856947134&partnerID=40&md5=618a40862bdb2062be95334dfda68eb7},
 keywords = {Electron confinement;Electrostatics;Energy conversion;Field structures;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Multi-grid;Multi-physics;Plasma confinement;Systems analysis;Thermalization;Time-scales},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-156-4},
 booktitle = {8th Annual International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference},
 year = {2010}
}


@inproceedings{Sedwick.2010b,
 author = {Sedwick, Raymond J.},
 title = {Magnetic Core Multi-Grid IEC Fusion as an Entry Point to a Hydrogen-Based Economy},
 url = {http://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2010-6605},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-156-4},
 booktitle = {8th Annual International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2010-6605}
}


@misc{Sedwick.2018,
 author = {Sedwick, Raymond J. and Chap, Andrew M.},
 date = {2018},
 title = {Continuous Electrode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion},
 url = {https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20200000757},
 number = {20200000757},
 institution = {{Maryland Univ. College Park}}
}


@patent{SEDWICKRAYMONDJ.20170726,
 author = {Sedwick, Raymond J. and Chap, Andrew M.},
 year = {2017/07/26},
 title = {SYSTEMS, METHODS, AND DEVICES FOR INERTIAL ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT},
 url = {https://lens.org/098-784-031-569-966},
 number = {US 2018/0033496 A1}
}


@phdthesis{Seltzman.2008,
 abstract = {Traditional inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion reactor designs utilize an ion accelerating grid fabricated out of a refractory metal capable of operating at high temperatures to radiate off heat imparted by ion-grid collisions. Unfortunately, the high gird temperature allows for a substantial thermionic electron emission current, requiring a high power draw and significantly reducing reactor efficiency. Further, electrons emitted from the grid are accelerated into the reactor shell where they generate a significant amount of bremsstrahlung x- rays requiring additional shielding and increasing system size and weight. Presented is a novel modification to the traditional implementation of an IEC fusion reactor, designed to improve operating efficiency by reducing electron emission from the grid. A liquid cooled grid design is utilized to reduce thermionic electron emission, allowing for higher plasma densities, and greater input power while improving system efficiency and reducing x-ray output. The resulting low grid temperatures substantially reduce thermionic electron emission and greatly improve reactor efficiency by reducing current draw from the central grid. The reduction of thermionic electron emission will eliminate the majority of bremsstrahlung x-ray generation thereby reducing shielding requirements. By measuring the heat deposited into the coolant, the grid cooling system may also be used as a diagnostic tool to study the physics involved in IEC reactors. In this manner, grid transparency may be directly measured as a function of ion bombardment heating. By modifying the confinement scheme of the reactor and subsequently evaluating the energy flux to the grid through ion collisions, greater energy and particle confinement times may be obtained.},
 author = {Seltzman, Andrew H.},
 year = {2008},
 title = {Design of an actively cooled grid system to improve efficiency in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion reactors},
 url = {http://smartech.gatech.edu/handle/1853/21828},
 school = {{Georgia Tech}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Semsari.2012,
 abstract = {High temperature (1,100-1,200̊C) implantation impact of helium ions in PC Tungsten as a candidate fusion first wall material was studied in the Iranian Inertial Electrostatic Confinement device (IR-IECF). High energetic (100-120 keV) helium ions were applied to produce fluences up to 5 $\times$ 10 20 He +/cm 2 on the surface of Tungsten. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate surface morphology changes for various ion fluences. The results showed formation of 'coral-like' surface structure and exfoliation and intensive increment in pore formation at high fluence. Microhardness measurements were used to evaluate mechanical properties of implanted tungsten. These investigations revealed that hardness increased with greater He + dose. The phase formation and structural evolution were studied by X-ray diffractometry method. {\copyright} Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011.},
 author = {Semsari, S. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Zakeri, A. and Khademzade, S. and Torabi, M. and Sedaghat, Movahhed M. and Damideh, V.},
 year = {2012},
 title = {The effect of high temperature He + implantation on polycrystalline tungsten in IR-IECF},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84868569223&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-011-9481-5&partnerID=40&md5=935357ad9e86cc38d65b38b9509b28b7},
 keywords = {Coral-like;Diffractometry methods;First wall;First wall materials;Fluences;Fusion first wall;He + implantation;Helium ion;High temperature;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ion fluences;Ions;Mechanical properties;Microhardness;Microhardness measurement;Phase formations;Polycrystalline;Pore formation;Scanning electron microscopy;SEM;Structural evolution;Tungsten;X ray diffraction analysis},
 pages = {389--395},
 volume = {31},
 number = {4},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-011-9481-5}
}


@article{Semsari.2013,
 abstract = {Polycrystalline tungsten specimens were irradiated in the Iranian Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion device (IR-IECF) by high energy ({\~{}}100 keV) and high fluency ({\~{}}1019 ions/cm2) helium and deuterium plasma to investigate the implantation impact of high energetic ions on tungsten as a candidate for fusion first wall material. Comparison of the exposure by He and D2 plasma and influence of high temperature ({\~{}}1,100 C) implantation of each ion has been examined. Scanning electron microscopy was used to investigate surface morphology changes for various ion fluencies. Results showed the onset of visible surface pores formation especially for helium implanted samples which increased with higher implant fluencies, eventually resulting in a rough and flaky surface structure, unlike deuterium implanted samples on which smoothening of the surface occurred. Microhardness measurements were used to evaluate mechanical properties of implanted tungsten. Each specimen sustained surface hardening after implantation which was observed to increase with greater ion dose. The phase formation and structural evolution were studied by X-ray diffractometry method. {\copyright} 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.},
 author = {Semsari, S. and Zakeri, A. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Khademzadeh, S. and Sedaghat, Movahhed M. and Torabi, M. and Damideh, V.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Comparison of high-energy He+ and D+ irradiation impact on tungsten surface in the IR-IECF device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84878549785&doi=10.1007%2fs10894-012-9540-6&partnerID=40&md5=29d9f81a19a6c53c8c508525f7e64265},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Diffractometry methods;First wall materials;Fusion first wall material;helium;IECF;Implanted samples;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ions;Microhardness measurement;Morphology;Phase formations;Scanning electron microscopy;SEM;Structural evolution;Surface hardening;Surface morphology;Tungsten;Tungsten metallography;X ray diffraction analysis},
 pages = {142--149},
 volume = {32},
 number = {1},
 issn = {01640313},
 journal = {Journal of Fusion Energy},
 doi = {10.1007/s10894-012-9540-6}
}


@inproceedings{Shaban.2000,
 author = {Shaban, Yasser R. and Nadler, Jonathan H. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Ion Microchannel Flow in Nonneutral IEC Discharges},
 pages = {UP1.020},
 volume = {42},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2000}
}


@inproceedings{Shaban.2001,
 author = {Shaban, Yasser and Miley, George H.},
 title = {ILLIBS, a RF-Driven Ion Source for IEC Fusion},
 pages = {LP1.069},
 volume = {43},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2001}
}


@inproceedings{Shaban.2002,
 author = {Shaban, Yasser and Miley, George H.},
 title = {High-Perveance Steady State Deuterium Ion Beam Extracted From Floating Plasma Stream},
 pages = {BO1.012},
 volume = {44},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2002},
 doi = {Source}
}


@article{Shafranov.2001,
 abstract = {The problem of controlled nuclear fusion (CNF) is a colossal scientific and technological challenge on a global scale; enormous teams of scientists in many countries are still trying to solve this problem. 50 years ago, on May 5, 1951, the USSR Council of Ministers Resolution enacted a govern-mental program, apparently the first in the worldn con-ducting research and experimental work to clarify the feasibility of building a magnetic thermonuclear reactor''. The three papers below briefly outline the history and se-quence of events together with the evolution of ideas that led to the first governmental decisions to carry out the work that would clarify whether the creation of a controlled thermo-nuclear reactor was feasible, and also summarize the results of the first decades of research.},
 author = {Shafranov, Vitalii D.},
 year = {2001},
 title = {The initial period in the history of nuclear fusion research at the Kurchatov Institute},
 url = {http://stacks.iop.org/1063-7869/44/i=8/a=A13?key=crossref.719505968875b4c998f5b61b3d9b64d5},
 pages = {835--843},
 volume = {44},
 number = {8},
 journal = {Physics-Uspekhi},
 doi = {10.1070/PU2001v044n08ABEH001068}
}


@article{Shikanov.2015,
 abstract = {A discharge plasma system for neutron generation based on the concept of inertial electrostatic confinement is considered. The system is made in the form of a gas-filled (1--60 Pa) diode with a composite hollow cathode placed at its center symmetrically to an embracing hollow cylindrical anode. Preionization of the discharge gap and an original design of the electrode system with a transparent central part make it possible to initiate a pulse high-voltage (100--150 kV) volume discharge in the ion oscillation mode. Estimates of the neutron emission in such a deuterium-filled diode show the feasibility of generating a pulse with a neutron yield on the order of 105 in the reaction D(d, n)3He, which is confirmed in experiments with an optimized geometry of the electrodes. {\copyright} 2015, Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.},
 author = {Shikanov, A. E. and Vovchenko, E. D. and Kozlovskii, K. I. and Shatokhin, V. L.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Small-size plasma diode with a transparent internal cathode for neutron generation},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84921985983&doi=10.1134%2fS1063784215010223&partnerID=40&md5=7bf53423789d1f14fb175ec19916f5b9},
 pages = {48--52},
 volume = {60},
 number = {1},
 issn = {10637842},
 journal = {Technical Physics},
 doi = {10.1134/S1063784215010223}
}


@phdthesis{Shirouzu.2000,
 author = {Shirouzu, Takayuki},
 year = {2000},
 title = {Study of an Cylindrical Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device (in Japanese)},
 school = {{Kyoto University}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@misc{Shrestha.2005,
 abstract = {A potential opportunity to enhance Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion exists by augmenting it with a magnetic dipole configuration. The theory is that the dipole fields will enhance the plasma density in the center region of the IEC and the combined IEC and dipole confinement properties will reduce plasma losses. To demonstrate that a hybrid Dipole-IEC configuration can provide an improved neutron source vs. a stand alone IEC, a first model Dipole-IEC experiment was benchmarked against a reference IEC. A triple Langmuir probe was used to find the electron temperature and density. It was found that the magnetic field increases the electron density by a factor of 16, the electron temperature decreases in the presence of a magnetic field, the discharge voltage decreases in the presence of a magnetic field, the potential of the dipole strongly influences the densities obtained in the center. The experimental set-up and plasma diagnostics are discussed in detail, as well as the results, and the developmental issues.},
 author = {Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi},
 date = {2005},
 title = {A Dipole Assisted IEC Neutron Source. Final Report},
 url = {https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc785917/},
 number = {FG02-04ER86222, DOE DE-FG02-04ER86222},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}},
 doi = {10.2172/860447}
}


@article{Shrier.2006,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement device operating in the gaseous discharge pressure regime (units to tens of mTorr) is shown to consist of a substantial flux of neutrals diverging from the cathode center. Using Doppler shift spectroscopy, it is shown that directional ion beams, originating from the center, increase in energy as they move away from the center. Moreover, through charge exchange, these ions become energetic neutrals and travel out of the cathode to the anode. Although naturally there are converging ions, it is shown that this is a lesser component of the energetic particle beams in this pressure range. {\copyright} 2006 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Shrier, Oded and Khachan, Joe and Bosi, S. and Fitzgerald, Michael and Evans, N.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Diverging ion motion in an inertial electrostatic confinement discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-31644450277&doi=10.1063%2f1.2167584&partnerID=40&md5=dd26ee594ce2c869c338273e12fec6ac},
 keywords = {Cathode center;Cathodes;Confinement discharge;Doppler effect;Doppler shift spectroscopy;Electrostatic confinement device;Electrostatics;ion beams;Magnetic flux;Plasma confinement},
 pages = {1--5},
 volume = {13},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.2167584}
}


@article{Shrier.2006c,
 abstract = {A Markov chain method is presented as an alternative approach to Monte Carlo simulations of charge exchange collisions by an energetic hydrogen ion beam with a cold background hydrogen gas. This method was used to determine the average energy of the resulting energetic neutrals along the path of the beam. A comparison with Monte Carlo modelling showed a good agreement but with the advantage that it required much less computing time and produced no numerical noise. In particular, the Markov chain method works well for monotonically increasing or decreasing electrostatic potentials. Finally, a good agreement is obtained with experimental results from Doppler shift spectroscopy on energetic beams from a hollow cathode discharge. In particular, the average energy of ions that undergo charge exchange reaches a plateau that can be well below the full energy that might be expected from the applied voltage bias, depending on the background gas pressure. For example, pressures of approximate to 20 mTorr limit the ion energy to approximate to 20{\%} of the applied voltage.},
 author = {Shrier, Oded and Khachan, Joe and Bosi, S.},
 year = {2006},
 title = {A Markov chain approach to modelling charge exchange processes of an ion beam in monotonically increasing or decreasing potentials},
 keywords = {ABNORMAL GLOW-DISCHARGE;ATOMIC-HYDROGEN;device;ENERGIES;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;LINE-SHAPES;Spectroscopy},
 pages = {11119--11128},
 volume = {39},
 number = {35},
 issn = {0305-4470},
 journal = {Journal of Physics A-Mathematical and General},
 doi = {10.1088/0305-4470/39/35/012}
}


@phdthesis{Shrier.2007,
 author = {Shrier, Oded},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Spectroscopy and modelling of ion charge exchange in energetic discharges used in nuclear fusion},
 school = {{University of Sydney}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Simmons.1994,
 author = {Simmons, K. H. and Santarius, John F.},
 title = {Numerical Simulation of Inertial Electrostatic Fusion},
 pages = {1740},
 volume = {39},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Simmons.1995,
 author = {Simmons, K. H. and Santarius, John F.},
 title = {Numerical Simulation of the Polywell Device},
 pages = {258},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 year = {1995}
}


@article{Smetanin.2020,
 abstract = {We use Letokhov's concept of stochastic feedback to interpret experiments on X-ray spontaneous emission from a polydisperse plasma of a nanosecond vacuum discharge (NVD) with a virtual cathode. We develop a diffusion model of stochastic propagation of spontaneous X-ray radiation in the volume of randomly located reflecting clusters. The model provides qualitative explanation of both the experimentally observed effects of partial {\textquotedbl}trapping{\textquotedbl} and high-intensity bursts of X-ray quanta. The X-ray burst regime is a result of the photon density accumulation which, due to diffusion inside the inter-electrode volume, exceeds the losses from the surface, while the trapping regime corresponds to the slow developing diffusion, which characteristic time is larger than the discharge duration.},
 author = {Smetanin, I. V. and Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Oginov, A. V. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 year = {2020},
 title = {X-Ray Bursts from a Random Cavity Emerging in an Inter-Electrode Polydisperse Plasma of Nanosecond Vacuum Discharge. II. Diffusion Model of X-Ray Emission},
 keywords = {Fusion;GENERATION;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;nanosecond vacuum discharge;random cavity;RANDOM LASERS;SCATTERING;SIZE;spontaneous X-ray burst},
 pages = {608--615},
 volume = {41},
 number = {6},
 issn = {1071-2836},
 journal = {Journal of Russian Laser Research},
 doi = {10.1007/s10946-020-09915-4}
}


@article{Smetanin.2021,
 abstract = {It is demonstrated experimentally that polydisperse Pd plasma of low energy ($\sim$1 J) nanosecond vacuum discharge operating in a virtual cathode regime becomes an effective stochastic cavity in hard x-ray domain. A diffusion model of stochastic propagation of spontaneous x-ray radiation in the volume of randomly located reflecting clusters is developed also. The model provides qualitative explanation of both the experimentally observed effects of high-intensity bursts and partial `trapping' of x-ray radiation. The x-ray burst emerges when photons are stored inside the plasma volume followed by instant release at the end of the discharge while the trapping regime corresponds to the slow developing x-ray diffusion with the characteristic time larger than the discharge duration. The results obtained are compared qualitatively with well-known concept of Letokhov's random laser.},
 author = {Smetanin, I. V. and Kurilenkov, Yu K. and Oginov, A. V. and Tarakanov, V. P. and Samoylov, I. S.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Polydisperse inter-electrode plasma of Pd nanoclusters as a random cavity for x-ray spontaneous emission bursts},
 pages = {015003},
 volume = {3},
 number = {1},
 issn = {2516-1067},
 journal = {Plasma Research Express},
 doi = {10.1088/2516-1067/abe293}
}


@article{Smovzh.2018,
 author = {Smovzh, Dmitry V. and Boyko, Evgeniy V. and Kostogrud, Ilya A. and Makotchenko, Victor V. and Sakhapov, Salavat Z.},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Graphene Doping in a Spherical Glow Discharge},
 keywords = {Smovzh2018},
 pages = {5127--5131},
 volume = {13},
 number = {7},
 journal = {International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN}
}


@article{Sorebo.2009,
 abstract = {Special Nuclear Materials (SNM) detection efforts have largely been divided into two main groups: active and passive. Passive techniques are highly desirable in that a radiation source need not be employed in order to detect fissile materials which broadcast a clear radiative signature. However, disadvantages can be seen in HEU (Highly Enriched Uranium) detection, for example, where the system's efficacy is limited by its ability to detect a weak self-radiative signature from U. Active interrogation provides a catalyst for amplifying HEU's presence vis-a-vis fission event inducement, which in turn yields a starker signature which can be discerned through an understanding of fissile materials and neutron transport in various media. Ongoing work in the Fusion Technology Institute's Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Experiment has focused on using the pulsed D-D neutrons from an IEC to interrogate the presence of HEU in an enclosed space. The paper begins with a brief description of the neutron-based detection schemes of Delayed Neutron Analysis (DNA) and Differential Die-Away (DDA). Experimental delayed neutron counts of ninety above the background at an interrogating neutron flux of 5.5x104 n/cm2-s are seen to confirm MCNP modeling results. MCNP is also utilized to probe future concepts in neutron-based active interrogating SNM detection systems using DDA analysis.},
 author = {Sorebo, J. H. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Radel, Ross F. and Santarius, John F.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Special nuclear materials detection using IEC fusion pulsed neutron source},
 keywords = {Active interrogation;fusion technology;Highly enriched uranium;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Neutron flux;Neutron sources;Neutron transport;Neutrons;Pulsed neutron sources;Radiative signature;Radioactive materials;Special nuclear materials},
 pages = {540--544},
 volume = {56},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST56-540}
}


@proceedings{SPIE.2007,
 year = {2007},
 title = {Proc. SPIE 6553, Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets XII},
 institution = {SPIE}
}


@phdthesis{Spijkers.2013,
 author = {Spijkers, B.E.N},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Measuring the fast ion density profile and energy distribution inside a Fusor using passive spectroscopy},
 url = {http://repository.tue.nl/759032},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Sporer.2017,
 author = {Sporer, Brendan},
 year = {2017},
 title = {A Method for Active Space Charge Neutralization in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Nuclear Fusion Device},
 school = {{The Pennsylvania State University}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@article{Stano.2016,
 author = {Stano, Michal and Ra{\`e}ko, Michal},
 year = {2016},
 title = {Experiments on D-D Fusion Using Inertial Electrostatic Confinement ( IEC ) Device in the Laboratory Exercises on Plasma Physics at the Comenius University *},
 pages = {71--81},
 volume = {LIII},
 journal = {Acta Physica Universitatis Comenianae}
}


@proceedings{Stott.1994,
 year = {1994},
 title = {Proceedings of the 21st European Physical Society Conference on Controlled Fusion and Plasma Physics},
 editor = {Stott, P. E. and Joffrin, E. and Platz, P.}
}


@phdthesis{Stubbers.1997,
 author = {Stubbers, Robert A.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Pulsed Power Supply (and Operation) of the Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic (IEC) Fusion Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Stubbers.2004,
 abstract = {Recent progress in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion research using a unique external ion source ILLIBS (Illinois Ion Beam Source) is summarized. ILLIBS employs an RF-driven plasma in an graded magnetic field configuration. Use of this source allows initiation of the plasma discharge below the normal (Paschen curve) discharge break-down region. This study provides initial experimental data on this important new regime for IEC operation where losses due to charge exchange are greatly reduced, improving the neutron production efficiency, thus allowing higher yields. A wide range of sub-breakdown deuterium pressures (0.4 to 2 mTorr) were studied. At 100 Watt input RF power, ILLBS provided a high ion current extraction efficiency and a deuterium ion flux of 6 x 10{\^{}}18 ions/(cm{\^{}}2-sec) at 65 mA with a beam diameter of 3 mm. With the ion gun on, a neutron rate of 2 x 10{\^{}}7 n/sec was achieved with grid voltage and current at 75 kV and 15 mA respectively, at 1.2 mTorr. These results suggest that using a D-T gas mixture in this unit would give a neutron rate of 7 x 10{\^{}}12 n/sec at 1.2 mTorr, 75 kV and 1.5-A ion current. This represents a significant improvement in production efficiency, reducing power handing problems under high neutron yield operation.},
 author = {Stubbers, Robert and Shaban, Yasser and Miley, George H.},
 title = {IEC Operation with RF Ion Injection},
 pages = {R14.008},
 volume = {2004},
 series = {APS Meeting Abstracts},
 booktitle = {APS April Meeting Abstracts},
 year = {2004}
}


@article{Sved.1995,
 abstract = {The potential scenario of a commercial aneutronic fusion power economy based on Helium 3 is reviewed with recent developments in fusion grade plasma containment considered. The Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device is a type of fusion reactor with immediate commercial applications as a small non-power reactor. Further development and growth to power reactor fusion reaction rates using Deuterium and Helium 3 offers the potential practical solution to fusion power. Recovery of the lunar Helium 3 inventory for export to power utility customers will require the build-up of a cis-lunar industrial infrastructure. Space transport capacity will be obliged to grow rapidly to support several thousand tons of cargo delivery to the lunar surface per year. A highly reusable, low operations cost cis-lunar transport infrastructure and lunar surface industrial activity will be made more practical by the availability of IEC fusion power units that are intrinsically low mass and compatible with space transport.},
 author = {Sved, J. and Kulcinski, G. L. and Miley, G. H.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {A commercial lunar helium 3 fusion power infrasructure},
 keywords = {Delta Clipper;Deuterium;Economic Impact;Ferry Spacecraft;Fusion reactors;Ground Support Systems and Facilities (Space);Helium Isotopes;Industrial Management;Inertial confinement fusion;Lunar mining;Lunar Resources;Lunar Spacecraft;Nuclear fuels;Plasma Control;Space Commercialization;Space Industrialization;Space Transportation System},
 pages = {55--61},
 volume = {48},
 issn = {0007-094X},
 journal = {Journal of the British Interplanetary Society}
}


@inproceedings{Sved.1997,
 author = {Sved, John},
 title = {Commercial IEC portable neutron source},
 pages = {CONF-971125},
 booktitle = {Transactions of the American Nuclear Society},
 year = {1997}
}


@inproceedings{Sved.1999,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement fusion grade plasma containment has been sporadically researched since the early 1960's. In the 1990's the work of G. I-I. Miley and his team at the University of Illinios, Fusion Studies Laboratory, Champaign-Urbana has stimulated a collaboration with industry. The development, and test program for the first industrial IEC neutron generator has progressed to the point where an endurance test is under way to demonstrate at least 10,000 hours of operational life of the sealed chamber device without servicing. The market entry goals of steady 10(7)D-D n/s CW output with an air-cooled system have been achieved. DASA has invested in the development of the industrial product and the continuing basic research at the UI-FSL. The complete DASA Fusion Star IEC-PSI point source neutron generator set is described with emphasis on the interfaces to user NAA systems. The next product developments are pulsed neutron operations and higher fusion reaction rates of up to 10(10) by means of affordable add-ons to the basic IEC-PS system. The production engineering experience gained will next be applied to a more challenging line source variant of the IEC, Beyond neutron and proton sources, several other IEC applications are being developed.},
 author = {Sved, John},
 title = {The first IEC fusion industrial neutron generator and developments},
 keywords = {Inertial confinement fusion},
 pages = {704--709},
 volume = {475},
 isbn = {0094-243X},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {1999},
 doi = {10.1063/1.59215}
}


@inproceedings{Sved.2000,
 abstract = {DaimlerChrysler Aerospace, Space Infrastructure division has been developing Inertial Electrostatic Confinement of fusion grade plasma. The first FusionStar commercial product is a small fusion reactor that functions as a neutron generator. Future development of this reactor is also anticipated for a proton generator variant. The widespread acceptance of this device for various applications and markets may cultivate favorable business conditions for a commercial return to the Moon in order to mine, refine and import Helium 3 to terrestrial markets. Further development of IEC fusion may lead to fusion power. The lunar mining scenario to be described here serves as a model for analysis by the mining industry professionals who will have to influence the astronautics professionals who must create the appropriate, affordable space infrastructure that can grow with a new market and serve the space mining industry.},
 author = {Sved, John},
 title = {A Helium 3 led lunar mining scenario based on IEC technology},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0034587160&doi=10.1061%2f40479%28204%2978&partnerID=40&md5=486c8563174c54bc70baf69daee9107e},
 keywords = {Aerospace engineering;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Lunar mining;Lunar surface analysis;Space research},
 urldate = {27 February 2000 through 2 March 2000},
 pages = {645--652},
 booktitle = {Space 2000: the Seventh International Conference and Exposition on Engineering, Construction, Operations and Business in Space},
 year = {2000},
 doi = {10.1061/40479(204)78}
}


@inproceedings{Sved.2000b,
 author = {Sved, John},
 title = {Evolution of IEC Fusion Via Commercial Fusionstar Opportunities},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ICONE 8},
 year = {2000}
}


@inproceedings{Sved.2009,
 abstract = {The NSD-Fusion GmbH commercial development of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement fusion devices as neutron generators started in 1996. Technical progress was positive but business and finance circumstances where the delay factors. For commercial success the NSD neutron generator has to deliver approximately ten times longer operational lifetime or endurance and ten times greater output for a competitive price. There are additional characteristics which users deem to be advantageous. A range of conceptual applications are described with the intent to alert innovative applications developers to the potential of the NSD neutron generator family of products.},
 author = {Sved, John and Menduev, N. and Firestone, T.},
 title = {Applications for gas-plasma target neutron generators},
 url = {https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/P1433_CD/datasets/papers/sm_en-18.pdf},
 keywords = {Commercial development;Competitive prices;Delay factors;Electrostatic generators;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Neutron beams;Neutron generators;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Nuclear engineering;Operational lifetime;Plasma targets;Technical progress},
 pages = {SM/EN­18},
 booktitle = {International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Research Applications and Utilization of Accelerators},
 year = {2009}
}


@patent{SVEDJOHN.20020820,
 author = {Sved, John},
 year = {2002/08/20},
 title = {Neutron Generator Apparatus},
 url = {https://lens.org/183-995-688-261-078},
 number = {EP 1461984 A1}
}


@patent{SVEDJOHN.20020820b,
 author = {Sved, John},
 year = {2002/08/20},
 title = {Neutron Generator Apparatus},
 url = {https://lens.org/066-790-710-671-364},
 number = {EP 1461984 B1}
}


@patent{SVEDJOHN.20050811,
 author = {Sved, John},
 year = {2005/08/11},
 title = {Process for Neutron Interrogation of Objects in Relative Motion or of Large Extent},
 url = {https://lens.org/025-893-797-711-238},
 number = {US 2007/0295911 A1}
}


@patent{SVEDJOHN.20050811b,
 author = {Sved, John},
 year = {2005/08/11},
 title = {Proton Generator Apparatus for Isotope Production},
 url = {https://lens.org/162-963-037-423-67X},
 number = {US 2008/0089460 A1}
}


@patent{SVEDJOHN.20050811c,
 author = {Sved, John},
 year = {2005/08/11},
 title = {Proton Generator Apparatus for Isotope Production},
 url = {https://lens.org/051-345-834-756-757},
 number = {EP 1800315 B1}
}


@patent{SVEDJOHN.20080603,
 author = {Sved, John},
 year = {2008/06/03},
 title = {Neutron Radiagraphy Apparatus and Method},
 url = {https://lens.org/154-393-176-223-027},
 number = {WO 2008/148525 A1}
}


@article{Swami.2021,
 author = {Swami, H. L. and Mohanty, S. R. and Vala, S. and Srinivasan, R. and Kumar, R.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Analysis of postoperation radiation hazards in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron source facility at center of plasma physics under institute for plasma research},
 url = {http://www.rpe.org.in/text.asp?2021/44/3/135/334777},
 keywords = {04-jan-2022;09;13;2021 accepted;2021 published;382 428;activation;address for correspondence;dr;e;fispact;Fusion;gandhinagar;gujarat;h;hswami;in;india;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;institute for plasma research;ipr;jun;l;mail;nuclear;oct;res;submitted;swami},
 pages = {135},
 volume = {44},
 number = {3},
 journal = {Radiation Protection and Environment},
 doi = {10.4103/rpe.rpe{\textunderscore }20{\textunderscore }21}
}


@inproceedings{Swanson.1971,
 author = {Swanson, D. A. and Verdeyen, J. T. and Cherrington, B. E.},
 title = {Experimental Observation of Multiple Potential Wells in an Electrostatic Inertial Confinement Device},
 pages = {1221},
 volume = {16},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1971}
}


@article{Swanson.1973,
 author = {Swanson, D. A.},
 year = {1973},
 title = {Potential well structure in an inertial electrostatic plasma confinement device},
 url = {http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/pof1/16/11/10.1063/1.1694238},
 pages = {1939},
 volume = {16},
 number = {11},
 issn = {10706631},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1694238}
}


@article{Swanson.1973b,
 abstract = {Electron injection into a highly permeable spherical anode under high--vacuum conditions has been observed to produce a negative well within the anode. When deuterium gas is introduced into the system, experimental observations strongly suggest that a positive potential region is formed within the negative potential well, which gives rise to a multiple potential well structure within the anode.},
 author = {Swanson, D. A. and Cherrington, B. E. and Verdeyen, J. T.},
 year = {1973},
 title = {Multiple potential--well structure created by electron injection in spherical geometry},
 pages = {125--126},
 volume = {23},
 number = {3},
 issn = {0003-6951},
 journal = {Applied Physics Letters},
 doi = {10.1063/1.1654829}
}


@phdthesis{Swanson.1975,
 author = {Swanson, D. A.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {Theoretical Study of a Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Plasma Confinement Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Syring.2012,
 author = {Syring, Constanze and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Development Activities of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device for Space Applications},
 pages = {IAC-12-C.4.7-C3.5.8},
 booktitle = {63rd International Astronautical Congress (IAC)},
 year = {2012}
}


@inproceedings{Syring.2013,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement is under investigation regarding the applicability as an advanced space propulsion system at the Institute of Space Systems, University of Stuttgart. As part of an extensive characterization of operational conditions and the jet extraction a two-grid system has been tested for its breakdown and discharge conditions. One of the known operation modes, the jet mode, is the most promising operation mode for that application. The breakdown discharge conditions and operational discharge conditions for several pressure ranges are given and the corresponding discharge phenomena shown.  2013, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Syring, Constanze and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Discharge and operational conditions of an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85071612638&doi=10.2514%2f6.2013-4025&partnerID=40&md5=69f28c113891b81ed6e4cc4e17b3c3a2},
 keywords = {Advanced space propulsions;American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics;Aviation;Discharge conditions;Discharge phenomena;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Institute of Space Systems;Operational conditions;Spacecraft propulsion},
 urldate = {14 July 2013 through 17 July 2013},
 pages = {AIAA-2013-4025},
 isbn = {978-1-62410-222-6},
 booktitle = {49th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2013},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2013-4025}
}


@inproceedings{Syring.2013b,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) is considered to be a promising future technol- ogy for space applications especially for advanced space propulsion systems with high Isps. Since this technology was mainly investigated and developed for applications as neutron source until a few years ago, a great potential and need for investigations regarding dis- charge phenomena such as the propellant confinement and the jet extraction for thrust generation is still existent. Moreover, the mechanisms behind the different discharge phe- nomena are not deeply understood yet. However, there are theories giving an insight into the physics that still have to be confirmed by experiments. As part of an experimental applicability study of an IEC system three grid systems have been tested experimentally regarding discharge phenomena and discharge conditions. The grid fidelity have been var- ied regarding grid opening size, electrode surface and electrode gap. Results show the respective operational conditions for several discharge modes in different gases for each grid setup and are compared with each other. The influence of electrode size and design on discharge conditions and phenomena is displayed as well. Characteristic discharge behavior of propellants such as argon, nitrogen and helium could be observed.},
 author = {Syring, Constanze and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Experimental Discharge Characterization and Scaling of IEC Plasma Devices},
 pages = {IEPC-2013-289},
 booktitle = {33rd International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2013}
}


@inproceedings{Syring.2014,
 author = {Syring, Constanze and Z{\"u}rn, Markus and Herdrich, Georg H. and Petkow, Dejan},
 title = {Thrust Model and Analytical Assessment of Losses in IEC Devices Thrust Model and Analytical Assessment of Losses in IEC Devices},
 booktitle = {5th Russian German Conference on Electric Propulsion},
 year = {2014}
}


@inproceedings{Syring.2014b,
 author = {Syring, Constanze and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 title = {Emission Spectroscopic Investigations on Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) for Propulsion Applications},
 booktitle = {Space Propulsion Conference 2014},
 year = {2014}
}


@article{Syring.2017,
 abstract = {The Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) method is a plasma confinement principle with different operation modes. The work presented investigates the jet mode, which occurs with a jet extraction relevant for space propulsion applications. Two different jet modes were observed, the tight jet mode and the spray jet mode. Depending on propellant, discharge pressure and power these modes occur at different operation conditions and characteristics. Emission spectroscopic investigations show a different plasma species composition of confinement and extraction plasma and the transition between those modes has been examined with a high-speed camera. Finally, the applicability of IEC plasma sources for space propulsion systems is discussed with respect to the experimental results. {\copyright} 2016 Elsevier Ltd},
 author = {Syring, Constanze and Herdrich, Georg H.},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Jet extraction modes of inertial electrostatic confinement devices for electric propulsion applications},
 keywords = {Cameras;Discharge pressures;Electric discharges;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Extraction;High speed camera;High speed cameras;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Jet mode;Operation conditions;Plasma composition;Plasma confinement;Plasma confinement and extraction;Propulsion;Propulsion applications;Space propulsion system;Spacecraft propulsion;Spectroscopic investigations},
 pages = {177--183},
 volume = {136},
 issn = {0042207X},
 journal = {Vacuum},
 doi = {10.1016/j.vacuum.2016.10.018}
}


@article{SztejnbergGoncalvesCarralves.2015,
 abstract = {Neutron generators based on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion were considered for the design of a neutron irradiation facility for explanted organ Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) that could be installed in a health care center as well as in research areas. The chosen facility configuration is {\textquotedbl}irradiation chamber{\textquotedbl}, a {\~{}}20$\times$20$\times$40 cm3 cavity near or in the center of the facility geometry where samples to be irradiated can be placed. Neutron flux calculations were performed to study different manners for improving scattering processes and, consequently, optimize neutron flux in the irradiation position. Flux distributions were assessed through numerical simulations of several models implemented in MCNP5 particle transport code. Simulation results provided a wide spectrum of combinations of net fluxes and energy spectrum distributions. Among them one can find a group that can provide thermal neutron fluxes per unit of production rate in a range from 4.1·10-4 cm-2 to 1.6·10-3 cm-2 with epithermal-to-thermal ratios between 0.3{\%} and 13{\%} and fast-to-thermal ratios between 0.01{\%} to 8{\%}. Neutron generators could be built to provide more than 1010 n s-1 and, consequently, with an arrangement of several generators appropriate enough neutron fluxes could be obtained that would be useful for several BNCT-related irradiations and, eventually, for clinical practice. {\copyright} 2015 Elsevier Ltd.},
 author = {{Sztejnberg Goncalves-Carralves}, M. L. and Miller, M. E.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Neutron flux assessment of a neutron irradiation facility based on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84959533308&doi=10.1016%2fj.apradiso.2015.06.017&partnerID=40&md5=6846aeb854934156708ee9795e9e830b},
 keywords = {Article;Boron neutron capture therapy;electricity;Electrostatics;Energy spectrum distribution;Explanted organ BNCT;generator;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Irradiation;Irradiation facilities;Irradiation position;mathematical model;Neutron beams;neutron capture therapy;Neutron flux;Neutron irradiation;neutron radiation;neutron scattering;Neutron sources;Particle transport codes;priority journal;Radiation;radiation dose distribution;radioactivity;temperature;Thermal-neutron flux},
 pages = {95--100},
 volume = {106},
 issn = {09698043},
 journal = {Applied Radiation and Isotopes},
 doi = {10.1016/j.apradiso.2015.06.017}
}


@inproceedings{Tabata.2005,
 author = {Tabata, Shinnosuke and YOSHIMURA, Shigehisa and Fuchigama, Youhei and Osawa, Hodaka and Ohnishi, Masami},
 title = {Neutron Yield of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2005},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2005s.0.604.0}
}


@inproceedings{Takahashi.2006,
 abstract = {We are trying to establish a landmine detection system by combining the D-D fusion neutron source. The principle idea of the presently developing system is based on the detection of capture gamma-rays from explosive. We are focusing on the detection of 2.22 MeV and 10.83 MeV capture gamma-rays from hydrogen and nitrogen, respectively, since all explosive contain these elements. To detect 10.83 MeV capture gamma-rays, the main detector is employed a BGO scintillator, which is surrounded by annular shaped NaI(Tl) scintillator with a hole of 1' in diameter to facilitate the use of anti-coincidence technique to suppress backgrounds and coincidence technique to detect 511 keV escape gamma-rays. To use anti-coincidence technique and coincidence technique, the Dual MCA circuit is employed. To examine the performance of this anti-coincidence technique, a preliminary experiment was carried out by using a 60Co gamma-ray source, and it was found that background level of gamma-rays is suppressed. And to examine the performance of this coincidence technique, melamine was irradiated by 252Cf neutron source, and the counts of 10.83 MeV region was increased by 27{\%} than previous system of NIM modules by using only anti-coincidence technique. On the basis of these experimental results, a series of experiments by combining with the D-D neutron source was conducted. It was found that the capture gamma-rays of 10.83 MeV from nitrogen could be detected clearly {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Shiroya, Seiji and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, Teruhisa},
 title = {Development of Landmine Detection System Using Scintillators by Measuring Radiations from Landmine},
 url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4178993/},
 pages = {273--274},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 booktitle = {2006 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/NSSMIC.2006.356154}
}


@article{Takahashi.2010,
 abstract = {For the detection of landmines, a new \textgreek{g}-ray detector system, a neutron source, and control and measurement devices were developed. A prototype system has newly been developed by combining these devices. The usefulness of capture \textgreek{g}-ray and backscattering neutron methods is examined with real explosives in several conditions and the performance of the prototype landmine detection system is demonstrated experimentally in this study. The combination of the methods is confirmed to be sufficiently effective for application to actual landmine detection.},
 author = {Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Takamatsu, Teruhisa and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Yagi, Takahiro and {Ho Pyeon}, Cheol and Shiroya, Seiji},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Development of landmine detection system based on the measurement of radiation from landmines},
 url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0969804310001430},
 keywords = {Backscattering neutron;Capture \textgreek{g}-ray;Landmine detection;RDX;TNT},
 pages = {2327--2334},
 volume = {68},
 number = {12},
 issn = {09698043},
 journal = {Applied Radiation and Isotopes},
 doi = {10.1016/j.apradiso.2010.03.021}
}


@article{Takahashi.2011,
 abstract = {The usefulness of the measurements of the backscattering neutron and 2.22 MeV capture \textgreek{g}-ray from hydrogen in the landmine detection method is described in this paper. When the soil moisture content is increased, the reaction rates of both the neutron scattering reaction and capture reaction are increased. However, the backscattering neutrons are more influenced than the capture \textgreek{g}-rays by the soil moisture before the reaction with the detector. The facts that the backscattering neutron method is useful in the dry soil case and that the capture \textgreek{g}-ray method is effective in well-wet soil case are confirmed by the experiments and the calculations. The landmine detection efficiency is improved in various soil moisture conditions by combining the backscattering neutron method together with the capture \textgreek{g}-ray method. The effectiveness of the pulse mode operation was confirmed numerically. {\copyright} 2011 Elsevier Ltd.},
 author = {Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Pyeon, Cheol Ho and Shiroya, Seiji and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Landmine detection method combined with backscattering neutrons and capture \textgreek{g}-rays from hydrogen},
 url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0969804311000108},
 keywords = {1H capture \textgreek{g}-ray;Backscattering neutron;Continuous wave mode operation;Landmine detection;MCNP-5;Pulse mode operation},
 pages = {1027--1032},
 volume = {69},
 number = {7},
 issn = {09698043},
 journal = {Applied Radiation and Isotopes},
 doi = {10.1016/j.apradiso.2011.01.008}
}


@article{Takakura.2018,
 abstract = {Feasibility studies on neutron radiography using an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) neutron source were carried out. A Monte Carlo analysis was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of neutron radiography experiment. Imaging tests using a medium-sized IEC neutron source were conducted with the indirect method using a dysprosium (Dy) foil and an imaging plate. Neutron images of objects consisting of six Cd pins and an array of B4C powder contained in a stainless-steel blade were obtained. The numerical and experimental results confirmed that the IEC neutron source can be applied to neutron radiography even with relatively low neutron flux of {\~{}}102 n/s/cm2. {\copyright} 2019 The Japan Society of Plasma.},
 author = {Takakura, K. and Sako, T. and Miyadera, Haruo and Yoshioka, K. and Karino, Y. and Nakayama, K. and Sugita, T. and Uematsu, D. and Okutomo, Kohei and Hasegawa, J. and Kohno, T. and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2018},
 title = {Neutron radiography using inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85070008169&doi=10.1585%2fPFR.13.2406075&partnerID=40&md5=1c4a6db7c9d15263f5af6e22b37ea935},
 keywords = {Boron carbide;D-D fusion;Electrostatics;Feasibility studies;Imaging plate;Indirect method;Indirect methods;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) neutron source;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Monte carlo analysis;Neutron image;Neutron radiography;Neutron sources},
 volume = {13},
 issn = {18806821},
 journal = {Plasma and Fusion Research},
 doi = {10.1585/PFR.13.2406075}
}


@inproceedings{Takakura.2021,
 abstract = {A compact inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion neutron source was developed. Imaging tests using the novel IEC neutron source were conducted with the indirect method using dysprosium foil and an imaging plate. {\copyright} OSA 2021, {\copyright} 2021 The Author(s)},
 author = {Takakura, K. and Miyadera, Haruo and Yoshioka, K. and Karino, Y. and Kimura, R. and Nakayama, K. and Hotta, Eiki and Hasegawa, J.},
 title = {Compact neutron generator with inertial electrostatic confinement fusion for neutron radiography},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85119338130&partnerID=40&md5=78d3e8157a302e7ccd4a077ad1beb52a},
 keywords = {Compact neutron generators;Dysprosium foils;Electrostatics;Fusion neutron source;Imaging plate;Imaging tests;Indirect methods;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutron radiography;Neutron sources;Neutrons},
 pages = {JTu5A.34},
 publisher = {{Optica Publishing Group (formerly OSA)}},
 booktitle = {Applied Industrial Spectroscopy, AIS 2021 - Part of Optical Sensors and Sensing Congress 2021},
 year = {2021}
}


@article{Takakura.2022,
 abstract = {A compact inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion neutron source was developed. Imaging tests using the cylindrical IEC neutron source were conducted with the indirect imaging plate (IP) method using dysprosium foil and an imaging plate. An array of B4C powder contained in a stainless-steel blade and Cd pins was successfully imaged. To calculate thermal neutron flux of the device, we tested multiple types of IP and IP scanners with the indirect IP method to create a calibration curve, and it was confirmed that dental IP scanners, which are more widely used than industrial ones, can be applied to the indirect IP method. {\copyright} 2022 Optica Publishing Group},
 author = {Takakura, K. and Nittoh, K. and Miyadera, Haruo and Yoshioka, K. and Karino, Y. and Hotta, Eiki and Hasegawa, J.},
 year = {2022},
 title = {Neutron imaging with an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85124217081&doi=10.1364%2fAO.447180&partnerID=40&md5=a6a7f5c5f97c9d3d3e88e5cd88d883a4},
 keywords = {Boron carbide;Calibration curves;Dysprosium foils;Electrostatics;Fusion neutron source;Imaging plate;Imaging tests;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusions;Neutron imaging;Neutron sources;Scanning;Steel blades;Thermal-neutron flux},
 pages = {1238--1247},
 volume = {61},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1559128X},
 journal = {Applied Optics},
 doi = {10.1364/AO.447180}
}


@article{Takamatsu.2005,
 abstract = {A magnetron discharge as a built-in ion source have studied both experimentally and numerically for a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion). With this magnetron discharge, ions are produced in the vicinity of the vacuum chamber (anode) at negative electric potential. Therefore, produced ions are expected to have nearly full energy corresponding to the applied voltage to the IECF cathode but slightly smaller energy preventing them from hitting the anode of the opposite end, eventually improving both fusion reaction rate and ion recirculation life. Also, the magnetron ion source was found to produce ample ion current for maintenance of the discharge. With the optimization of the configuration of the magnetron discharge, further improvement of the fusion reaction rate is found feasible.},
 author = {Takamatsu, T. and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Toku, Hisayuki and Kyunai, T.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Magnetron-discharge-based ion source for improvement of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744375740&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A867&partnerID=40&md5=45ae383c0ee2dcf716515b9d2fe196b9},
 keywords = {Anodes;Built-in ion sources;Cathodes;Computer simulation;Electric discharges;Electric field effects;Electric potential;Electrostatics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device;Ion sources;Magnetic field effects;Magnetron-discharge-based ion sources;Magnetrons;Neutron production rate (NPR);Vacuum applications},
 pages = {1290--1294},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A867}
}


@article{Takamatsu.2006,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device is studied for a compact fusion neutron/proton source using a built-in magnetron ion source. The addition of an ion source to the IEC fusion device enhances fusion reactions by allowing a lower operating gas pressure and by providing a beam-like ion energy distribution. Under lower gas pressures, charge exchange collisions are reduced, resulting in longer ion lifetime and thus enhanced ion re-circulation. The performance characteristics of this IEC fusion device found in the experiments were compared with the numerical calculations and found qualitatively in good agreement. An improvement in normalized neutron yield (defined as neutron yield divided by the product of grid current and operating gas pressure), more than a factor of two, has been observed compared with the conventional glow-discharge driven IEC fusion device. {\copyright} 2006 IAEA, Vienna.},
 author = {Takamatsu, T. and Masuda, Kai and Kyunai, T. and Toku, Hisayuki and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device with an ion source using a magnetron discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-29244437182&doi=10.1088%2f0029-5515%2f46%2f1%2f016&partnerID=40&md5=091349a8a688a03742a7a40e9efae31e},
 keywords = {Electric discharges;Electrostatics;Gas pressure;Glow discharges;Grid current;IEC fusion device;Ions;Magnetrons;neutron yield;Neutrons;Plasma confinement},
 pages = {142--148},
 volume = {46},
 number = {1},
 issn = {00295515},
 journal = {Nuclear Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0029-5515/46/1/016}
}


@inproceedings{Takamatsu.2006b,
 abstract = {An inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device is studied for a compact fusion neutron/proton source using a magnetron discharge as an external ion source. The addition of ion sources to the IEC device is to enhance the efficiency of fusion reactions by lowering the operating gas pressure and by providing high energetic ion. Doppler shift spectroscopy was carried out to evaluate an improvement of the IEC. It was found that mean energy of fast neutral was increased by 20-50 {\%} in this IEC, as compared to conventional glow-discharge-based IEC. {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Takamatsu, T. and Oishi, T. and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Improvement of inertial electrostatic confinement device by lowed operating gas pressure using magnetron-discharge-based ion source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-47349088913&doi=10.1109%2fDEIV.2006.357383&partnerID=40&md5=1e455dfa2c378b592560f5bd74faccf1},
 keywords = {Discharge (fluid mechanics);Doppler shifting;Electrical insulation;Electrostatics;Elementary particle sources;Fluid mechanics;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Gas pressures;Glow discharges;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);International symposium;In-vacuum;Ion sources;Ions;Magnetron discharges;Magnetrons;Mean energy;Neutron sources;Nuclear physics;Vacuum},
 urldate = {25 September 2006 through 29 September 2006},
 pages = {638--641},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 22nd IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering (SOFE 2007)},
 year = {2007},
 doi = {10.1109/DEIV.2006.357383}
}


@inproceedings{Takamatsu.2006c,
 author = {Takamatsu, Teruhisa and Fujimoto, Takeshi and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Water-cooled Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Neutron Source for Landmine Detection},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2006f.0.150.0}
}


@article{Takamatsu.2007,
 abstract = {A new Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion device has been manufactured as a compact neutron source. This device consists of double jacket chambers to provide sufficient water cooling, having the diameters of inner and outer chambers of, respectively, 20 cm and 30 cm. The effective water-cooling enabled the IEC device to operate at high cathode current of more than 80 mA. A target neutron yield of 1$\times$107 has been achieved for cathode voltage of 80 kV and (cathode) current of 80 mA. The water jacket of a 5 cm width was designed as well to assure the sufficient reflection of 2.45MeV D-D neutrons downward, where a thinner 1cm thick water jacket is installed at the bottom. This nonuniformity of water jacket thickness resulted in increased neutron flux downward.},
 author = {Takamatsu, T. and Fujimoto, T. and Masuda, Kai and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Spatial distribution of D-D neutrons from a compact water-cooled inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-36248955541&doi=10.13182%2fFST07-A1647&partnerID=40&md5=2a14365406d09520440e3b4de4c18bc6},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric currents;Electrostatics;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Neutron flux;Water cooled reactors;Water jacket;Water-cooling},
 pages = {1114--1118},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1647}
}


@inproceedings{Takamatsu.b,
 author = {Takamatsu, T. and Masuda, Kai and Ogawa, S. and Toku, Hisayuki and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 title = {Improvement of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device by Magnetron-Discharge-Based Built-in Ion Source},
 url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4018905/},
 keywords = {Component;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion source;Neutron generator},
 pages = {1--4},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st IEEE/NPS Symposium on Fusion Engineering SOFE 05},
 year = {2005},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2005.252871}
}


@article{Takashi.2004,
 author = {Takashi, Matsuo and Hideaki, Matsuura and Yasuyuki, Nakao and Kazuhiko, Kudo},
 year = {2004},
 title = {Dependence of Neutron / Proton Production Rate on Discharged Current in Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Plasmas},
 keywords = {deuterium-helium3 gas system;fusion reaction rate;IEC;ion distribution function},
 pages = {731--734},
 volume = {6},
 journal = {Journal of Plasma and Fusion Research SERIES}
}


@inproceedings{Tanaka.2003,
 abstract = {Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion is a scheme of producing the ions between the anode and the hollow cathode in the concentric spheres by the glow discharge, accelerating the ions into the spherical center and giving rise to fusion reactions between the accelerated ions or between the accelerated ions and the background neutrals. A current feed-through is connected to the cathode through the anode to apply the negative high voltage. The existence of the feed-through breaks the spherical symmetry of the device and makes the lifetime of fast ions shorter since 50 {\%} of the accelerated ions hit the feed-through and are lost. The optimal shapes of both of the cathode and the anode at the viewpoint of the long life of the fast ions are inquired by evaluating the lifetime of the ions by tracking the trajectories of the ions. Numerical results reveal that the lifetime of fast ions becomes twice by deforming a hemisphere of the anode pierced by the feed-through into an ellipsoid, although the shape of the cathode exerts less influence on their lives. The deformed anode reduces the heat load on the feed-through due to the ion bombardment and raises the neutron production rates due to longer life of the fast ions. {\copyright}2003 IEEE.},
 author = {Tanaka, R. and Osawa, H. and Tabata, T. and Ishibashi, Takayuki and Ohnishi, M.},
 title = {Optimal shape of electrodes for high performance of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-27644599448&partnerID=40&md5=458f3de182faa91058b9405860e88ba6},
 keywords = {Concentric spheres;Electric potential;Electrodes;Fusion reactions;Heat loads;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Ion bombardment;Ions;Neutron production rates;Neutrons;Numerical methods;Plasma confinement;Plasma theory;Plasmas},
 urldate = {14 October 2003 through 17 October 2003},
 pages = {320--323},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 20th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering, 2003},
 year = {2003}
}


@article{Taniuchi.2010,
 abstract = {The effects of grid cathode structure on a low-input-power inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device were studied to achieve a high neutron production rate (NPR). An increase in geometric transparency of the grid cathode by decreasing the number of wire rings is known to mean that the recirculation ion current is increased. We expected that this increase would contribute to an increase in the NPR. However, our experimental results showed that the NPR in the low-input-power IECF device (V = 10:0-30:0 kV, I = 40:0 mA) increased by decreasing the transparency. We clarified this tendency by analyzing the equipotential lines near the grid. As a result, we found that the distortion of these lines near the grid was lessened by decreasing the transparency. Lessening the distortion of these lines, rather than increasing the in recirculation ion current, was effective in increasing the NPR in the low-input-power IECF device. In addition, we find that the effect of mitigating these lines depended on the applied voltage. {\copyright} Atomic Energy Society of Japan.},
 author = {Taniuchi, Yasuyuki and Matsumura, Y. and Taira, K. and Utsumi, M. and Chiba, M. and Shirakawa, Toshiaki and Fujii, M.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Effects of grid cathode structure on a low-input-power inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77954319530&doi=10.3327%2fjnst.47.626&partnerID=40&md5=cf050aeb15a910f45cde1f9a2e7ed9fc},
 keywords = {Applied voltages;Cathode structure;D-D nuclear fusion interaction;Electric furnaces;Electrostatics;Equipotential lines;Fusion reactors;Grid cathode structure;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion devices;Ion currents;Ion microchannels;Ions;Microchannels;Neutron production rates;Nuclear energy;nuclear fusion;Recirculations;Transparency},
 pages = {626--633},
 volume = {47},
 number = {7},
 issn = {00223131},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.3327/jnst.47.626}
}


@proceedings{TheJapanSocietyofAppliedPhysics.2015,
 year = {2015},
 title = {JSAP Annual Meetings Extended Abstracts},
 number = {76},
 institution = {{The Japan Society of Applied Physics}}
}


@proceedings{TheJapanSocietyofAppliedPhysics.March1114,
 year = {2015},
 title = {JSAP Annual Meetings Extended Abstracts},
 institution = {{The Japan Society of Applied Physics}}
}


@proceedings{TheJapanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers.April2023,
 year = {2003},
 title = {The Proceedings of the International Conference on Nuclear Engineering (ICONE)},
 institution = {{The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers}}
}


@inproceedings{Thomas.2005,
 author = {Thomas, R. and Takeyama, Y. and Miley, George H. and Momota, H. and Shrestha, P. J.},
 title = {Dipole-Assisted IEC for Space Propulsion},
 publisher = {{American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics}},
 series = {Joint Propulsion Conferences},
 booktitle = {41st AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference {\&} Exhibit},
 year = {2005},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2005-4138}
}


@inproceedings{Thorson.1994,
 abstract = {The Spherically Convergent Ion Focus (SCIF) is an alternative plasma confinement scheme in which ions are electrostatically confined, accelerated, and concentrated at fusion-relevant energies. This concept has been recently promoted for various near-term applications including waste disposal, particle production, neutron radiography and tomography, plastic explosive detection, materials research, and medical isotope production. The Wisconsin SCIF experiments are designed to evaluate the practicality of the SCIF concept for given applications. In the experiment, a wire globe serves as a simple means of producing the trapping potential well and the ion source consists of a cold, uniform plasma at the edge. Hydrogen ions formed from the background neutral gas are typically accelerated to energies of 5--20 kV, and measured cathode grid currents approach the space-charge limit for concentric spheres. Core size measurements utilize spectrally-filtered CCD camera images of the visible emission from the core region, and the minimal observed core radius of 0.6 cm (HWHM) is within a factor of 2--3 of the theoretical convergence ratio for the device. Neutral particle interactions and potential asymmetries imposed by the grid lead to non-ideal convergence, as evidenced by measured potential asymmetries and core size dependence on cathode grid spacing. Floating probes with 30 kV isolation have allowed unique measurements of the density, electric potential and temperature in the converged core. The ratio of core to edge density is 10--20, which is in good agreement with scaling from radial flux conservation},
 author = {Thorson, T.A and Durst, R. D. and Fonck, R. J. and Foucher, B. S. and Wainwright, L. P.},
 title = {Initial Results from the UW Spherical Ion Focus Experiment},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/178280},
 pages = {1740},
 volume = {39},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1994}
}


@inproceedings{Thorson.1995,
 abstract = {Summary form only given. The spherically convergent ion focus (SCIF) is an alternative plasma confinement scheme in which ions are electrostatically confined, accelerated, and concentrated at fusion-relevant energies. This concept has been recently promoted for various near-term applications including waste disposal, particle production, neutron radiography and tomography, plastic explosive detection, materials research, and medical isotope production. The Wisconsin SCIF experiments are designed to evaluate the practicality of the SCIF concept for given applications. In the experiment, a wire globe serves as a simple means of producing the trapping potential well, and the ion source consists of a cold, uniform plasma (n/sub i//spl sim/10/sup 14/ m/sup -1/) at the edge. Hydrogen ions formed from the background neutral gas (0.1-15 mtorr) are typically accelerated to energies of 5-20 kV, and measured cathode grid currents approach the space-charge limit for concentric spheres. Core size measurements utilize spectrally-filtered CCD camera images of the visible emission from the core region, and the minimal observed core radius of 0.6 cm (HWHM) is within a factor of 2-3 of the theoretical convergence ratio for the device. Neutral particle interactions and potential asymmetries imposed by the grid lead to non-ideal convergence, as evidenced by measured potential asymmetries and core size dependence on cathode grid spacing. Floating probes with 30 kV isolation have allowed unique measurements of the density, electric potential and temperature in the converged core.},
 author = {Thorson, T.A and Durst, R. D. and Fonck, R. J. and Foucher, B. S. and Wainwright, L. P.},
 title = {Initial results from the Wisconsin spherically convergent ion focus experiment},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1995.533471}
}


@phdthesis{Thorson.1996,
 author = {Thorson, Timothy A.},
 year = {1996},
 title = {Ion flow and fusion reactivity characterization of a spherical convergent ion focus},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Thorson.1997,
 abstract = {Unique measurements of the basic plasma-flow characteristics in a low pressure ($\leq$53 mPa H2) spherically convergent ion focus are obtained using high-voltage ($\leq$55 kV) emissive and double probes. The radial plasma potential distribution agrees with a collisionless, recirculating, space-charge-limited current model. Flow convergence increases with voltage and neutral pressure and decreases with cathode grid wire spacing and current. Core radii within 4-5 times the ideal geometric limit are measured, and the observed core sizes are consistent with predictions from a multipass orbit model which includes asymmetries in the accelerating potential well. A virtual anode is observed in the converged core region, and no evidence for multiple potential well structures in the core is found. Measurements of the core ion density (nic $\sim$ 1015 m-3) are consistent with simple flow convergence models. {\copyright} 1997 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Thorson, Timothy A. and Durst, R. D. and Fonck, R. J. and Wainwright, L. P.},
 year = {1997},
 title = {Convergence, electrostatic potential, and density measurements in a spherically convergent ion focus},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.872110},
 pages = {4--15},
 volume = {4},
 number = {1},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.872110}
}


@article{Thorson.1998,
 abstract = {The deuterium-deuterium (D-D) fusion reaction rate in a spherically convergent ion focus is observed to significantly exceed the rate predicted by a collisionless flow model. However, a careful consideration of ion-neutral collisions and the trapped neutral density in the cathode account for the extra reactivity without invoking anomalous ion trapping in the converged core region. This conclusion is supported by proton collimation measurements, which indicate that the bulk of the observed reactivity originates outside the core region. In addition, a classical flow model, where charge exchange collisional effects on the ion and fast neutral distributions are included, provides fusion rate estimates that we quantitatively consistent with the observed D-D fusion neutron production rate.},
 author = {Thorson, Timothy A. and Durst, R. D. and Fonck, R. J. and Sontag, A. C.},
 year = {1998},
 title = {Fusion reactivity characterization of a spherically convergent ion focus},
 keywords = {INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT},
 pages = {495--507},
 volume = {38},
 number = {4},
 issn = {00295515},
 journal = {Nuclear Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0029-5515/38/4/302}
}


@article{Tiedemann.2021,
 abstract = {The inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) has been commonly researched in the scope of application for space propulsion and fusions reactors since many years. The utilization as thruster is possible due to a free emitting stream in a so-called jet mode of the IEC source. Depending on the setup, this jet can be operated as high energetic electron beam (tight jet) with electron energies of several keV or as low energetic plasma jet close to quasineutrality (spray jet). These modes are of high interest for thin film applications and plasma treatment. However, the IEC source is still not used in this field of application. Relevant application scopes can be electron substrate heating, surface plasma pretreatment, ionized physical vapor deposition and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. In this paper, a cylindrical IEC source is presented that emits the plasma in both known jet modes, spray jet and tight jet. The jet emission occurs in radial outlet direction along the entire source height (``curtain-like'' emission). Furthermore, an ignition test and operational behavior test is introduced. A stable spray jet operation region was examined and dependencies on pressure and voltage are investigated. {\copyright} 2021},
 author = {Tiedemann, D. and Hofmann, P. and Emmerlich, J. and Chan, Yung-An and Ulrich, S. and Herdrich, Georg H. and M{\"u}ller, M.},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement plasma source for surface treatment},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85111650314&doi=10.1016%2fj.vacuum.2021.110502&partnerID=40&md5=ff2207f0d04c3f0373268a5c9c1ca20c},
 keywords = {Cylindrical IEC;Cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement;Dissociation;Electron energy levels;Electron sources;Electron-beam;Electrons energy;Electrostatics;High energetic electrons;Highly ionized plasma;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ionization;IPVD;Physical vapor deposition;Plasma CVD;Plasma jets;Plasma source;Plasma sources;Plasma spraying;Scope of application;Space propulsions;Spray jet;Spray jets;Surface treatment},
 volume = {193},
 issn = {0042207X},
 journal = {Vacuum},
 doi = {10.1016/j.vacuum.2021.110502}
}


@inproceedings{Tiouririne.1993,
 author = {Tiouririne, T. N. and Nebel, Richard A. and Turner, L. and Nystrom, W. D. and Bussard, Robert W. and Miley, George H. and Yamamoto, Y. and Bates and J. and Lewis, H. R.},
 title = {Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Studies},
 url = {https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:25027228},
 pages = {2C24},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 1993 International Sherwood Fusion Theory Conference},
 year = {1993}
}


@inproceedings{Tiouririne.1995,
 author = {Tiouririne, T. N. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 title = {OPTIMIZATION OF SCIF FUSION SYSTEMS},
 pages = {1665--1666},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1995}
}


@phdthesis{Tomiyasu.2004,
 author = {Tomiyasu, Kunihiko},
 year = {2004},
 title = {Pulsed Operation of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Device and its Applications},
 school = {{Tokyo Institute of Technology}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Tomiyasu.2009,
 abstract = {In order to evaluate the effect of cusp magnetic field in the cylindrical Radially Convergent Beam Fusion (RCBF) device, four kinds of experimental setups were examined. The maximum Neutron Production Rate (NPR) of 7.4 $\times$ 10 9 n/s was obtained at -80 kV and 15 A. As a result of the theoretical evaluation of fusion regimes in the RCBF device, the NPR normalized by the cathode current and the gas pressure was compared between the setups. The experimental data showed that the normalized NPR is highly correlated with the gas pressure, and it was independent of the setups. As the gas pressure decreased, the normalized NPR was increased. Hence, the present study suggests that the effect of the cusp magnetic field is to achieve lower pressure operation which improves the normalized NPR. The numerical estimation became in agreement with the experimental result by introducing an adjusting factor which was highly correlated with the pressure. The difference of the pressure is expected to affect some factors, such as an effective cathode transparency.},
 author = {Tomiyasu, Kunihiko and Yokoyama, Kai and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Effects of cusp magnetic field in a cylindrical radially convergent beam fusion device},
 pages = {967--971},
 volume = {56},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-A9035}
}


@article{Tomiyasu.2010,
 abstract = {In order to enhance the fusion reaction rate in inertial electrostatic confinement devices, it is necessary to increase the ion density with low cathode current and low background pressure. In order to accomplish the requirement, the authors suggest magnetic-assisted electrostatic confinement (MEC) scheme. The MEC relies on controlling the ion motion by applying an axial magnetic field to a system with cylindrical electrodes. In order to clarify the fundamental performances of the MEC device, particle-in-cell simulation was carried out. By reducing the background pressure, the ion confinement was improved resulting in the increase of the ion density. However, the ion density saturated due to space charge limitation. The estimated fusion reaction rate was about 5 $\times$ 106 1/s/m when the cathode voltage was -100 kV, the magnetic field was 200 mT, and the cathode current was 100 mA/m. The reaction rate, however, is expected to become higher since the ion density limitation is moderated by the electron which is not considered in the present analysis. {\copyright} 2010 Elsevier B.V.},
 author = {Tomiyasu, Kunihiko and Yokoyama, Kai and Watanabe, Masato and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Particle-in-cell simulation of magnetic-assisted electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-77955415964&doi=10.1016%2fj.fusengdes.2010.04.036&partnerID=40&md5=566bd7677ed051dc805818e5a94ad72f},
 keywords = {Axial magnetic field;Background pressure;Cathode currents;Cathode voltages;Cylindrical electrodes;Electric furnaces;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Fusion;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;ion beams;Ion confinements;ion density;Ion motions;Ions;Low background;Magnetic bubbles;Magnetic fields;Magnetic materials;Magnetrons;Particle beam dynamics;Particle in cell;Particle-in-cell simulations;Plasma theory;Reaction rates;Space charges},
 pages = {728--733},
 volume = {85},
 number = {5},
 issn = {09203796},
 journal = {Fusion Engineering and Design},
 doi = {10.1016/j.fusengdes.2010.04.036}
}


@inproceedings{Tomizawa.2003,
 abstract = {As gas pressure is closely correlated to discharge voltage in glow discharge, it is difficult to operate an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device using glow discharge at gas pressure of less than $\sim$1Pa. Also in such low pressure, the impurity from vacuum chamber affect the experimental results as the total fuel (deuterium) flow is small. In this study, we made residual gas analyze to identify and improve experimental conditions, and tried to make low pressure IECF operation by supplying ions from ECR ion source. We were able to make 45kV, 2-4mA discharge at 0.4-0.032Pa, but still we could not make large current discharge. Neutron production rate (NPR) increases proportionally to current which indicates beam-background gas fusion is still dominant in this pressure range. The normalized NPR by discharge current (NPR/I) shows to increase at low gas pressure ({\&}lt;1Pa). The maximum NPR/I we have measured is 4.19$\times$104/sec/mA, which is about two times larger than that obtained at 1.3Pa discharge. {\copyright}2003 IEEE.},
 author = {Tomizawa, T. and Higashi, T. and Daino, M. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 title = {Neutron production characteristic of a cylindrical IECF at gas pressure of 0.1-1Pa using assisted glow discharges},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-27644496255&partnerID=40&md5=33d5340a17f736be238f19bcdaf223a9},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Discharge current;Glow discharges;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) devices;Ions;Neutron production rate (NPR);Neutrons;Plasma confinement;Plasma theory;Plasmas;Pressure effects;Vacuum;Vacuum chambers;Vacuum pumps},
 urldate = {14 October 2003 through 17 October 2003},
 pages = {324--327},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 20th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering, 2003},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2003.1426649}
}


@proceedings{TouT.Y..2019,
 year = {2021},
 title = {Proceedings of the 14th Asia-Pacific Physics Conference},
 number = {2319},
 publisher = {{AIP Publishing}},
 editor = {{Tou T.-Y.} and {Shukor R.A.} and {Yokoyama J.} and {Tanaka K.} and {Choi H.J.} and {Matsumoto R.} and {Chin O.-H.} and {Chin J.H.} and {Ratnavelu K.}}
}


@inproceedings{Triola.2008,
 abstract = {Findings of multiple Department of Defense (DoD) studies and other sources indicate that the United States faces a cluster of signifi cant security threats caused by how the country obtains, distributes, and uses energy. This paper explores the nature and magnitude of the security threats as related to energy-some potential solutions, which include technical, political, and programmatic options; and some alternative futures the nation may face depending upon various choices of actions and assumptions. Specifi c emerging options addressed include Polywell fusion, renewable fuel from waste and algae cultivation, all-electric vehicle fl eets, highly-efficient heat engines, and special military energy considerations.},
 author = {Triola, L. C.},
 title = {Energy {\&} national security: An exploration of threats, solutions, and alternative futures},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-67649653908&doi=10.1109%2fENERGY.2008.4781047&partnerID=40&md5=e1537158542aab40ff12c3ab6616fdf2},
 keywords = {Department of Defense;Electric automobiles;Energy considerations;Energy conversion;Heat engines;Military vehicles;National security;Potential solutions;Renewable energy resources;Renewable fuels;Security systems;Security threats;Solid wastes},
 booktitle = {2008 IEEE Energy 2030 Conference, ENERGY 2008},
 year = {2008},
 doi = {10.1109/ENERGY.2008.4781047}
}


@article{Tuft.2010,
 abstract = {A pulsed reversed-polarity inertial-electrostatic confinement device has been investigated experimentally using voltage and spectroscopic diagnostics. Large-amplitude oscillations were observed in the floating potential of the plasma immediately following the initiation of the discharge. It is postulated that the observations were the result of coherent ion oscillations within a harmonic potential well formed by a uniform electron density in the center of the device. A simple model of the system predicts the depth of this transient potential well to be approximately 100 V. Observations of the relative occupation of the third and fourth energy levels of hydrogen in the plasma indicated the formation of a Maxwellian electron energy distribution after 20 \textgreek{m}s. The results suggest a promising avenue toward a net fusion power gain by utilizing these oscillations to periodically compress and heat the plasma to thermonuclear densities and energies. {\copyright} 2010 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Tuft, C. and Khachan, Joe},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Spherical plasma oscillations in a reversed-polarity inertial-electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78650289469&doi=10.1063%2f1.3522776&partnerID=40&md5=b588143c134c5ac4413b71c256463b5d},
 keywords = {Electric discharges;Electron densities;Electron energy distributions;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatics;Energy level;Floating potentials;Fusion power;Harmonic potential well;Large amplitude oscillation;Plasma oscillations;Potential wells;Spectroscopic diagnostics},
 volume = {17},
 number = {11},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3522776}
}


@article{Turner.1993,
 abstract = {The physics limiting the density of a cold non-neutral plasma is presented. It is shown that when a flow has no strain, the instantaneous maximum number of charges that can be stored within a fixed boundary is equal to the total magnetic field energy within divided by the relativistic rest energy of a single charge. A higher limit can be supported by the presence of a deviatoric strain in the flow. Brillouin flow equilibria with arbitrarily high values of the Brillouin ratio, leading to the possibility of pure inertial-electrostatic confinement of non-neutral plasmas, are demonstrated. {\copyright} 1993 The American Physical Society.},
 author = {Turner, L. and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 year = {1993},
 title = {Brillouin limit and beyond: A route to inertial-electrostatic confinement of a single-species plasma},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-5844352423&doi=10.1103%2fPhysRevLett.70.798&partnerID=40&md5=ac9190aa12c2ed7ee53c30a0e1ceb3e0},
 pages = {798--801},
 volume = {70},
 number = {6},
 issn = {00319007},
 journal = {Physical Review Letters},
 doi = {10.1103/PhysRevLett.70.798}
}


@inproceedings{Turner.1993b,
 author = {Turner, Leaf and Barnes, Daniel C.},
 title = {Exceeding the Brillouin Limit: A Novel Path to Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement of a Single-Species Plasma},
 url = {https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:25027226},
 pages = {1D3},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 1993 International Sherwood Fusion Theory Conference},
 year = {1993}
}


@article{Turner.1995,
 abstract = {Streaming instabilities of a refiexing beam in a slab model of a beam Penning trap or an inertial electrostatic confinement device are studied. Particles may have turning points that may be between the walls. Linear theory is developed for the case in which the self-field cancels the external potential. If the electric field perturbation is odd about the center, these two-stream modes couple the slow waves on the two beams. Even modes consist of two classes: a class of two-stream modes and another class of complex-frequency modes, coupling the slow and fast waves on the same beam. The latter are unstable over a larger range than the two-stream modes. Thermal spread is stabilizing only when the thermal and streaming velocities are comparable. Numerical results for the general class of equilibria show both two-stream-like modes and oscillating modes. {\copyright} 1995 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Turner, L. and Finn, J. M.},
 year = {1995},
 title = {Streaming instabilities of a non-neutral plasma with turning points},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0038085809&doi=10.1063%2f1.871354&partnerID=40&md5=5bd713f897306d98666c5bcb1989bffd},
 pages = {1378--1392},
 volume = {2},
 number = {5},
 issn = {1070664X},
 journal = {Physics of Plasmas},
 doi = {10.1063/1.871354}
}


@misc{Tzonev.1993,
 author = {Tzonev, I. V.},
 date = {1993},
 title = {Light Intensity Measurement: Mathematical Modeling. First Specialist Workshop on IEC Fusion},
 number = {FSL 513},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@inproceedings{Tzonev.1995,
 abstract = {Prior Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) studies have assumed that very low angular momentum (zero in the ideal case) is necessary to achieve a potential well structure capable of trapping energetic ions in the center of a spherical device. However, the present study shows that high-current ion beams having large-angular-momentum spread can also form deep potential well traps.},
 author = {Tzonev, Ivon V. and DeMora, John M. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Effect of large ion angular momentum spread and high current on inertial electrostatic confinement potential structures},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0029457906&partnerID=40&md5=dd3ab52b337f35a926996ce97949bb93},
 keywords = {Anodes;Cathodes;Computer simulation;Deep potential well traps;Electrostatics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Ion angular momentum spread;ion beams;Ions;Neutron sources;Particle beam dynamics},
 urldate = {1 October 1995 through 5 October 1995},
 pages = {1476--1481},
 booktitle = {16th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Part 2 (of 2)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1995.533474}
}


@inproceedings{Tzonev.1995b,
 author = {Tzonev, Ivon V. and Miley, George H. and Nebel, Richard A.},
 title = {Plasma physics simulations of double potential wells in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device},
 isbn = {0730-9244},
 booktitle = {International Conference on Plasma Science (papers in summary form only received)},
 year = {1995},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.1995.533474}
}


@inproceedings{Tzonev.1995c,
 author = {Tzonev, I. V. and Miley, George H. and Nebel, Richard A.},
 title = {A Computational Study of the Convergence of Large Angular Momentum, High Current Ion Beams in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Device},
 pages = {197--198},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases},
 year = {1995}
}


@inproceedings{Tzonev.1995d,
 author = {Tzonev, I. V. and Nebel, Richard A. and Ling, Kuok-Mee and Barnes, Daniel C. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Double potential structures and inertial collisional compression (ICC) effect in an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device},
 pages = {1851/1S.12},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1995}
}


@phdthesis{Tzonev.1996,
 author = {Tzonev, I. V.},
 year = {1996},
 title = {Effect of Large Ion Angular Momentum Spread and High Current on IEC Potential Structures},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Ueno.2005,
 abstract = {In recent researches, an assisted glow discharge experiment using an external ion source has been tried to reduce operation gas pressure. As results, operating gas pressure has been successfully reduced from 1.5 Pa to 0.3 Pa, and the neutron production rate has increased. These results are considered to be due to an increase of ion energy. However, it is necessary to measure the ion energy distribution of the Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (C-IECF) device in order to confirm this. To do this, we have measured the distribution of the neutral particle beam energy (relative to ion energy distribution). These experimental results demonstrate that a decrease of operation gas pressure (from 1.7 Pa to 0.3 Pa) contributes to the increase in ion energy.},
 author = {Ueno, Y. and Tomizawa, T. and Yamamoto, Y.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Measurement of ion energy distribution in a Cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (C-IECF) device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744381576&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A868&partnerID=40&md5=e1d9a37edbabe88f6bb129503281400e},
 keywords = {Electric fields;Electrostatic self-fields;Electrostatics;Glow discharges;High energy physics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device;Ion energy distribution;Ions;Magnetic field effects;Neutron sources;Particle beams;Pressure effects;Turbo molecular pumps (TMP);Voltage control},
 pages = {1295--1298},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A868}
}


@inproceedings{Ulmen.2012,
 author = {Ulmen, Benjamin A. and Keutelian, Paul A. and Chen, George and Krishnamurthy, Akshata and Reilly, Michael P. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Investigation of Plasma Properties in a Helicon Injected Inertial Plasma Electrostatic Rocket (HIIPER)},
 pages = {AIAA 2012-3867},
 booktitle = {48th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit 2012},
 year = {2012},
 doi = {10.2514/6.2012-3867}
}


@phdthesis{Ulmen.2013,
 author = {Ulmen, Benjamin A.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Formation and Extraction of a Dense Plasma Jet from a Helicon-Injected-Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Device},
 school = {{University of Illinois}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@proceedings{Valone.2012,
 year = {2012},
 title = {Physics Procedia},
 edition = {38},
 editor = {Valone, Thomas}
}


@phdthesis{vandeLindt.2021,
 author = {{van de Lindt}, Jacob},
 year = {2021},
 title = {Modeling the Fusion Reactio in an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Reactor with the Particle-in-cell Method},
 school = {{University of Oregon}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{vanLimpt.2013,
 author = {{van Limpt}, S.H.M.},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Characterization of Fusor Jets},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{vanRossum.2019,
 author = {{van Rossum}, N. C.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Optimized D-D Neutron Production Rates},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Verbelen.2022,
 author = {Verbelen, Yannick and Bakr, Mahmoud A. and WALLACE-SMITH, TOM and Scott, Thomas},
 title = {Design of an Automated System for Electrolytic Fusion Fuel},
 booktitle = {31st International Conference Nuclear Energy for New Europe, NENE2022},
 year = {2022},
 file = {NENE2022{\_}1002:Attachments/NENE2022{\_}1002.pdf:application/pdf}
}


@misc{Verdeyen.1972,
 author = {Verdeyen, J. T. and Cherrington, B. E.},
 date = {1972},
 title = {Experimental study of the feasibility of inertially confining energetic electrons and ions by electrostatic means. Final report, 1 July 1968--31 December 1972},
 number = {AD-757228; UILU-ENG-73-2546; AFOSR-TR-73-438},
 institution = {{University of Illinois}}
}


@article{Verdeyen.1975,
 author = {Verdeyen, J. T. and Cherrington, B. E. and Swanson, D. A. and Meeker, D. J.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {Recent developments in electrostatic confinement - Experimental},
 keywords = {Charge Distribution;Controlled Fusion;Density Distribution;Electric fields;Electron beams;Electron Density (Concentration);Plasma Control;Plasma physics;Plasma Potentials;Plasma Probes;Poisson equation},
 pages = {126--138},
 volume = {251},
 journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences},
 doi = {10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb00087.x}
}


@article{Viatcheslav.2002,
 author = {Viatcheslav, Budaev},
 year = {2002},
 title = {Intermittent lon Trajectories and Focusing in Spherical Inertial Electromagnetic Confinement},
 keywords = {Fusion;ION;magnetic inertial electrostatic confinement;neutron source;spherical ion convergent flow},
 pages = {346--350},
 volume = {5},
 journal = {J. Plasma Fusion Res. SERIES}
}


@inproceedings{Wainwright.1994,
 author = {Wainwright, L. P.},
 title = {The UW Spherical Ion Focus Experiment},
 pages = {1740},
 volume = {39},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1994}
}


@patent{WALLACESMITHTOM.20220615,
 author = {WALLACE-SMITH, TOM and FIRESTONE, TALMON CASSANDER},
 year = {2022/06/15},
 title = {PARTICLE GENERATING APPARATUS},
 url = {https://lens.org/070-422-614-786-490},
 number = {WO 2022/263827 A1}
}


@article{Wang.2019,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Thruster (IECT) is a new type of electrostatic plasma thruster with simple structure, long life and resistance to ablation. In order to study the discharge principle and working mechanism of the thruster, the drift-diffusion fluid simulation method is used to study the plasma discharge with different grid wire diameters, grid number, thruster size and the impact of cathode voltage, background pressure on thruster discharge based on the structure of the cylindrical IECT. The simulation results show that with the necessary geometric transmission of the cathode, increasing the number of thruster grids can increase the jet ion number density and reduce the plume divergence angle on study condition. The plasma density of the thruster jet increases as the background pressure and cathode voltage increase. However, if the pressure continues to increase, the critical value will be reached. The plasma is constrained inside the thruster and unable to be ejected, the injection mode cannot be operated. So the cathode voltage and the background pressure have a great influence on the IECT. {\copyright} 2019, Editorial Department of Journal of Propulsion Technology. All right reserved.},
 author = {Wang, Z.-P. and Xia, Guangqing and Guo, M.-K. and Han, Y.-J. and Zhou, N.-D.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Numerical Simulation of Discharge Process of Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Thruster},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85075273540&doi=10.13675%2fj.cnki.tjjs.180780&partnerID=40&md5=1bb97a2a50599f036fd75f1ab914056b},
 keywords = {Background pressure;Cathodes;Discharge process;Drift diffusion;Drift-diffusion;Electric discharges;Electric propulsion;Fluid simulations;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Plasma;Plasma density;Plasmas;Simple structures;Simulation;Working mechanisms},
 pages = {2153--2160},
 volume = {40},
 number = {9},
 issn = {10014055},
 journal = {Tuijin Jishu/Journal of Propulsion Technology},
 doi = {10.13675/j.cnki.tjjs.180780}
}


@inproceedings{Watanabe.2019,
 author = {Watanabe, Masato and Shimizu, N. and Miyauchi, A.},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion neutron source with an externally applied magnetic field},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85084023299&partnerID=40&md5=74865e67b82d8929e7ab940215591846},
 pages = {P1.2011},
 booktitle = {46th European Physical Society Conference on Plasma Physics (EPS 2019)},
 year = {2019}
}


@article{Wehmeyer.2005,
 abstract = {Detection of explosives has been identified as a near term commercial opportunity for using a fusion plasma. Typical explosive compositions contain low Z material (C, N, O) which are not easily detected using conventional x-rays or metal detectors. However, 2.45 MeV neutrons produced in a D-D fusion reaction can be used for detection of explosives or other clandestine materials in suitcases, packages, or shipping containers. Steady-state D-D operation is possible using an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) fusion device. The University of Wisconsin IEC device has produced D-D neutrons at 1.8 $\times$ 108 neutrons/second at a true cathode voltage of 166 kV and a meter current of 68 mA. These neutron production rates are approaching the levels required for the detection of explosives. In order to increase and optimize the neutron production rate in the IEC device, experiments were performed altering the cathode's size (diameter), geometry, and material composition. Preliminary results indicate that significant differences in neutron production rates are not achieved by altering the geometry or material composition of the cathode. However, the neutron production rate was found to increase approximately 20{\%} by doubling the cathode's diameter from 10 cm to 20 cm. In addition, increasing the cathode voltage from 34 kV to 94 kV at a meter current of 30 mA increased the neutron production rate from 1.24 $\times$ 106 n/s to 2.83 $\times$ 107 n/s.},
 author = {Wehmeyer, Alex L. and Radel, Ross F. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Optimizing neutron production rates from D-D fusion in an inertial electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744416571&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A861&partnerID=40&md5=01138e41478299283ed2f07ab8276801},
 keywords = {Cathode voltage;Cathodes;D-D fusion;Electrostatics;Explosives;Gamma rays;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device;Metal detectors;Neutrons;Plasma applications;radioactivity;Thermal effects;Thermalization;Voltage control},
 pages = {1260--1264},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A861}
}


@phdthesis{Wehmeyer.2005b,
 author = {Wehmeyer, Alex L.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {The Detection of Explosives Using an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement D-D Fusion Device},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Weidner.2003,
 abstract = {This paper describes a proof of principle experiment to produce 13N using an inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device. This radioisotope is often used in positron emission tomography scans to image the heart. The 10-minute half-life of 13N limits its use to those areas and clinics that possess an accelerator. A portable IEC device could be brought to remote locations, however, and produce short-lived PET isotopes on-site. Using the 14.7 MeV protons produced from the D-3He fuel cycle, the University of Wisconsin IEC device was used to produce approximately 4 - 8 Bq of 13N during two separate experiments.},
 author = {Weidner, J. W. and Kulcinski, Gerald L. and Santarius, John F. and Ashley, Robert P. and Piefer, Gregory R. and Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Radel, Ross F. and Murali, Subramanian Krupakar},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Production of 13N via inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0041786686&doi=10.13182%2fFST03-8&partnerID=40&md5=12dbf55687498da5e074b4e061e0467e},
 keywords = {Electron energy levels;High-energy proton;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Medical imaging;Positron emission tomography;Protons;Radioisotopes},
 pages = {539--543},
 volume = {44},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST03-8}
}


@phdthesis{Weidner.2003b,
 author = {Weidner, J. W.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {The production of 13N from inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {http://rigel.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm1210.pdf},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Westenskow.1975thesis,
 abstract = {A neutron-detection system was built for the purpose of measuring the neutron flux from an Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Device located at Brigham Young University. A BFsub 3 proportional counter was used for absolute flux measurements and a pair of scintillation detectors was used to compare neutron output under different operating conditions. The detectors were designed to be compatible with the operating conditions of the device and to be able to measure small changes in neutron output. The detectors were calibrated using a Pu-Be source with corrections made for laboratory conditions. Performance of the counting system was checked and data were collected on the neutron flux from the device.},
 author = {Westenskow, G. A.},
 year = {1975},
 title = {Measurements of neutron flux from an inertial-electrostatic confinement device},
 url = {https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4162728},
 school = {{Brigham Young University}},
 doi = {10.2172/4162728},
 type = {Master Thesis}
}


@phdthesis{Winjen.2014,
 author = {Winjen, M.},
 year = {2014},
 title = {The effect of the cathode radius on the neutron production in an IEC fusion device},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@inproceedings{Winter.2017,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) plasma systems were investigated experimentally at the University of Kentucky with air and argon as working gas at pressure levels between 10 and 100 mTorr and at electrical powers up to 60 W clearly aiming at non-fusion IEC operation. Starting from conventional spherical grid configurations, a cylindrical system with helix shaped electrodes was developed and tested in a rectified AC mode of operation rather than in the more conventional DC mode. The presented data focuses mainly on this cylindrical design in tight jet mode which is considered to have significant potential as a direct electric propulsion system. The electrical characteristics of different geometries are described in form of current-voltage and power-voltage characteristics. Initial emission spectroscopy measurements were carried out confirming the presence of heavy particles in the IEC beam. From the interaction of the IEC beam with an aluminum foil target in combination with the emission spectroscopy results, first estimates of heavy particle velocities and potential thrust of this system were obtained to be in the range of 5-6.4 km/s and about 1 mN, respectively. A design concept for an encapsulated system with dedicated mass flow provided to the IEC for future operation is presented. Nomenclature a = cylinder diameter A hole = hole area, m 2 AC = Alternating current c e = effective exhaust velocity, m/s DC = Direct current F = thrust, N IEC = Inertial Electrostatic Confinement k = Boltzmann constant, 1.38064852 $\times$ 10-23 J/K ṁ = mass flow, kg/s M part = particle mass, kg n part = number density of particles, 1/m 3 N part = number of particles p stat = static pressure, Pa q evap,Al = mass specific heat of evaporation of aluminum, 10,530 kJ/kg Q evap,Al = heat of evaporation of aluminum, J  Al = density of aluminum,2,700 kg/m 3 2 t penetration = penetration time, s T plasma = plasma temperature, K UK = University of Kentucky u part = particle velocity, m/s},
 author = {Winter, Michael and Koch, Helmut},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic onfinement plasma devices - potential thruster technology for very accurate attitude control systems},
 pages = {IEPC-2017-549},
 booktitle = {35th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2017}
}


@inproceedings{Winter.2019,
 author = {Winter, Michael and Koch, Helmut and Green, Ricky W. and Hartsfield, Carl R.},
 title = {Direct Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Propulsion at Low Power Levels},
 pages = {IEPC-2019-742},
 booktitle = {36th International Electric Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2019}
}


@patent{WINTERMICHAEL.20191011,
 author = {Winter, Michael and Koch, Helmut},
 year = {2019/10/11},
 title = {PLASMA GENERATOR INCLUDING ANODE AND CATHODE HELD WITHIN A CONTAINMENT HOUSING: Patent US 2020/0120784 A1},
 url = {https://lens.org/051-190-482-550-726},
 number = {US 2020/0120784 A1}
}


@phdthesis{Wolf.,
 author = {Wolf, A. J.},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Measurement of ion velocities in the TU/e Fusor plasma using LIF spectroscopy},
 school = {{Eindhoven University of Technology}},
 type = {MSc Thesis}
}


@article{Wong.1992,
 author = {Wong, S. Kai and Krall, Nicholas Anthony},
 year = {1992},
 title = {Potential well formation by injection of electrons with various energy distributions into a sphere or a slab},
 url = {http://aip.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.860321},
 pages = {4140--4152},
 volume = {4},
 number = {12},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids B: Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.860321}
}


@article{Wong.1993,
 abstract = {Spherically convergent ion focus (SCIF) devices relying on hot electrons to create the confining electrostatic well are found to be subject to a counterstreaming ion instability. Nonlocal linear stability theories in a spherical geometry are formulated and solved both analytically and numerically. The results of previous calculations of local linear theory are used for comparison. Linear growth rates of the order of the beam transit frequency are predicted. The consequence of these instabilities awaits a nonlinear treatment.},
 author = {Wong, S. K. and Krall, N. A.},
 year = {1993},
 title = {A nonlocal theory of counterstreaming ion instability},
 pages = {1706--1714},
 volume = {5},
 number = {6},
 issn = {0899-8221},
 journal = {Physics of Fluids B: Plasma Physics},
 doi = {10.1063/1.860805}
}


@inproceedings{Wu.2002,
 abstract = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) devices represent an attractive neutron source for NAA-based security inspection system because of its simple configuration, easy operation and reliable neutron production. However, neutron yield must be improved to allow improved detection ability. When neutrons are produced in the pulsed mode, combination of FNA technique and X-ray technique can provide excellent inspection results with a unique fuzzy logic system proposed for such a system to allow fast analysis while minimizing false alarms.},
 author = {Wu, Linchun and Miley, George H.},
 title = {IEC-based neutron generator for security inspection system},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0036393250&doi=10.1115%2fICONE10-22696&partnerID=40&md5=08177a9a51caf352fc2de3bb5c6bfa7a},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inspection;Neutron activation analysis;Neutron generator;Neutron sources;Nuclear reactors;Numerical methods;Security inspection system;Security systems},
 urldate = {14 April 2002 through 18 April 2002},
 pages = {921--926},
 booktitle = {10th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering (ICONE 10)},
 year = {2002},
 doi = {10.1115/ICONE10-22696}
}


@article{Wu.2007,
 abstract = {Homeland security has an urgent need for an advanced detecting system to accurately and quickly search for nuclear and explosive materials in a wide variety of situations. An integrated broad area coverage neutron/x-ray interrogation unit is proposed here to meet such needs. This system will use a unique cylindrical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device. This compact pulsed neutron/x-ray line source can produce $\sim$2x1010 n/s 14.1-MeV D-T neutrons, $\sim$108 n/s 2.45-MeV D-D neutrons and 80 kV x-rays. Unlike prior neutron activation systems, this unit can provide a long line-like emission source to obtain broad coverage, providing very fast scan time for even large objects. The use of combined multi-energy neutron and x-ray sources, along with a 3-D detector array and fuzzy logic analysis system, are expected to provide high elemental identification accuracy, greatly decreasing false signals so commonly encountered in prior systems. Analysis techniques will employ both thermal neutron analysis (TNA) and pulsed fast neutron analysis (PFNA), accompanied by broad area x-ray imaging techniques.},
 author = {Wu, Linchun and Miley, George H. and Momota, Hiromu and Shrestha, Prajakti Joshi},
 year = {2007},
 title = {An integrated broad area coverage fusion neutron/x-ray interrogation unit},
 keywords = {Detectors;Explosives;Fusion reactions;Fuzzy logic;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Integrated circuits;Neutrons;Pulsed fast neutron analysis (PFNA);Thermal neutron analysis (TNA);X ray analysis;X-ray interrogation},
 pages = {1096--1100},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1643}
}


@inproceedings{Wulfkuhler.2016,
 abstract = {This article gives an overview of the ongoing efforts at Dresden University of Technology to build and further develop an IEC fusion device for future space applications. The principle of the inertial electrostatic confinement of plasmas in spherical gridded devices has been explored for decades and because inherent loss mechanisms have prevented reaching a breakeven as an energy source, it has mainly been used as a neutron source and is under investigation as a non-fusion space thruster. Nevertheless, efforts are still made to improve the fusion gain. The focus of our studies lies on the construction of special 3D-printed spherical electrodes, which feature the geometry of a C-60 {\textquotedbl}buckyball{\textquotedbl} fullerene. The highly symmetric structure of the buckyball might prove advantageous in terms of plasma confinement and particle focusing. For a first characterization of this electrode type, an analysis of the geometry is performed, the construction of the electrodes is discussed and an experiment is conducted to compare the performances of buckyball grids and wiregrids in a two-grid and a multi-grid setup in an argon glow discharge. {\copyright} 2016, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc, AIAA. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Wulfk{\"u}hler, Jan-Philipp and Tajmar, Martin},
 title = {Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion with buckyballshaped multi-grids},
 keywords = {3D printers;Argon glow discharges;Electric discharges;Electrodes;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;Geometry;Glow discharges;IEC fusion device;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Loss mechanisms;Neutron sources;Particle focusing;Plasma confinement;Propulsion;Space applications;Spherical electrodes;Symmetric structures},
 booktitle = {52nd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference},
 year = {2016}
}


@patent{XIAGUANGQING.20160826,
 author = {Xia, Guangqing and {ZHOU NIANDONG} and {WU QIUYUN} and {WANG PENG} and {ZOU CUNZUO} and {HAN YAJIE} and {CHEN LIUWEI}},
 year = {2016/08/26},
 title = {Ion collision acceleration type electric thruster device},
 url = {https://lens.org/082-438-857-106-543},
 number = {CN 106286178 A}
}


@inproceedings{Y.A.ChanM.EdamotoF.RomanoG.HerdrichN.Yamamoto.2021,
 author = {Chan, Yung-An and Edamoto, Masafumi and Romano, Francesco and Herdrich, Georg H. and Yamamoto, Naoji},
 title = {Electro-magnetic Nozzle for Plasma Acceleration of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Cathode: Development and Characterization},
 pages = {SP2020{\_}00308},
 booktitle = {Space Propulsion Conference 2020+1},
 year = {2021}
}


@inproceedings{Yamagaki.2010,
 author = {Yamagaki, Yu and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Masuda, Kai and Kipritidis, John and Kajiwara, Taiju},
 title = {Simulation of New IECF Design for Improved Ion Recirculation},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of Annual / Fall Meetings of Atomic Energy Society of Japan},
 year = {2010},
 doi = {10.11561/aesj.2010f.0.895.0}
}


@inproceedings{Yamamoto.1992,
 author = {Yamamoto, Y. and Miley, George H.},
 title = {Comparison of Analytic and Numerical Simulation Solutions for Spherical Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (SEIC) of a Deuterium Fusion Reaction Plasma},
 volume = {37},
 booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Physical Society},
 year = {1992}
}


@article{Yamamoto.1996,
 abstract = {Preliminary inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion experiments have been carried out using hydrogen gas, and measurements of the light from a plasma core were made. The life time of charged particles in gridded IECF configuration is found to be longer than in the conventional spherical electrode discharges. The light intensity is found to be proportional to about 2/3 power of the input power.},
 author = {Yamamoto, Yasushi and Ohnishi, Masami and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Toku, Hisayuki and Hasegawa, Mitsunori and Matsuo, Takashi},
 year = {1996},
 title = {Preliminary studies of inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion experiments},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0030073957&doi=10.13182%2ffst96-a11963133&partnerID=40&md5=0e23a611c145cda34debe0f9cb37f097},
 keywords = {Charged particles;Electric discharges;Hydrogen;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;ion density;Ions;Light intensity;Light measurement;Plasma core;Plasma density;Plasmas},
 pages = {1332--1336},
 volume = {30},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst96-a11963133}
}


@inproceedings{Yamamoto.1998,
 abstract = {IECF experiments with auxiliary discharges in outer region were made. Operation pressure of IECF is successfully reduced to about 0.5 Pa when auxiliary discharges are turned on. Neutron measurement shows 2$\times$106/sec fusion occurred at 45 kV, 15 mA discharge. Proof of principle experiment of the potential well measurement using Stark effect shows the method works but several improvements are required.},
 author = {Yamamoto, Y. and Hasegawa, M. and Ohnishi, M. and Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Inoue, Nobuyuki},
 title = {Preliminary studies of potential well measurement in inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion experiments},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0031631758&partnerID=40&md5=9dcabcbe245dc7b73454c6fc4d6b6e38},
 keywords = {Anodes;Electrodes;Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Glow discharges;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Optical variables measurement;Performance;Plasma confinement;Potential well measurement;Stark effect},
 urldate = {6 October 1997 through 10 October 1997},
 pages = {745--748},
 booktitle = {17th IEEE/NPSS Symposium Fusion Engineering},
 year = {1997}
}


@article{Yamamoto.2001,
 abstract = {The effects of beam convergence on the fusion reaction rate in the cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device are investigated using a two-dimensional simulation code and experiments. It is found from the simulation that the fusion reaction rate increases significantly with an increase of beam convergence; therefore, there is an increase of ion densities at the center region. In the experiments designed to confirm these results using different electrode shapes, the effects of the anode shape are clearly observed.},
 author = {Yamamoto, Y. and Kusaba, R. and Shirouzu, Takayuki and Inoue, Nobuyuki},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Effects of electrode shape on performance characteristics of a cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035337535&doi=10.13182%2fFST01-A172&partnerID=40&md5=6a6c0041b66eb4e84a67e06f093e004f},
 keywords = {Beam fusion;Computer simulation;Electric discharges;Electric potential;Electrodes;Electrostatic confinement;Electrostatics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) devices;Ions;neutron source;Neutron sources;Particle beams},
 pages = {1188--1192},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A172}
}


@article{Yamamoto.2005,
 abstract = {We have been developing a 1-D PIC simulation code for the spherical IECF, which includes atomic processes between energetic particles and background gases. In this paper, the electrode spacing effects on the neutron production rate (NPR) are investigated using this code by changing the cathode radius while keeping anode radius constant (17cm). Applied voltage (-90kV) and ion injection current(50mA)are fixed with a deuterium pressure of 0.13 Pa, where the IECF discharge is not self-sustaining discharge and is in the ion injection mode. It is found that (1) the discharge voltage is not affected by the electrode spacing, (2) the neutron production rate increases with the increase of the cathode radius, and (3) the maximum obtained NPR with cathode radius of 10cm is about twice of that with the 3cm cathode.},
 author = {Yamamoto, Y. and Noborio, Kazuyuki and Konishi, S.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Influence of the electrode spacing on the performance characteristics of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion in low pressure operation},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744413553&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A866&partnerID=40&md5=a6c579f25e4061e7d4c338d7cbc419dc},
 keywords = {Computer simulation;Deuterium;Electric discharges;Electrode spacing;Electrodes;Electrostatics;High energy physics;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device;Ion injection;Ionization;Neutron production rate (NPR);Neutron sources;Pressure effects;Voltage control},
 pages = {1285--1289},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A866}
}


@article{Yamamoto.2009,
 abstract = {We have investigated the neutron generation characteristics of discharge-type fusion neutron source by experiments and computer simulations for several years. The cylindrical inertial electro-static confinement device used for these studies has been considered to be a point source where neutrons emitted isotropic. The aspect ratio (length divided by diameter) of the device is 1 similar to 2. For neutron applications, a beam shape where neutrons are emitted in a specific direction may be more convenient. In this paper we describe recent results of neutronic calculations for making a beam-tie neutron source by increasing aspect ratio of the device and by locating fleeting material around the device. It is found that the re increase of aspect ratio of 2 similar to 5 does not strongly affect the neutron flux distribution, but that neutron fluxes in the axial direction becomes 2 similar to 3 times larger than those without reflectors and more than I order stronger than the radial direction by adding reflector.},
 author = {Yamamoto, Yasushi and Ishidou, Atsunori and Noborio, Kazuyuki and Konishi, Satoshi},
 year = {2009},
 title = {NEUTRON BEAM GENERATION BY THE CYLINDRICAL FUSION NEUTRON SOURCE},
 keywords = {device;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT},
 pages = {761--765},
 volume = {56},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST09-A9001}
}


@article{Yamamoto.2017,
 abstract = {The first tritium burning experiments of the discharge type fusion neutron source were conducted in January 2015, using a 93{\%} deuterium and 7{\%} tritium gas mixture. In order to conduct the experiment in a closed environment, a gas feed and exhaust system using non-evaporable getter material was prepared. This system was designed to minimize tritium usage and produce measurable changes in the neutron production rate on the basis of the dependence of the equilibrium pressure on getter temperature as included in the manufacturer's data sheet. However, the present experiments revealed that the gas supply was insufficient and that the discharge duration was limited to about 2 minutes by the pressure drop during discharge. To determine the cause, verification experiments using hydrogen and deuterium gas were performed. It was found that the pressure variation with getter temperature could be mimicked by exploiting isotope effects and adjusting the hydrogen/deuterium concentration in the getter material according to the gas released into the vacuum chamber. Moreover, prolonged maintenance of a discharge was demonstrated by roughly tripling the amount of gas. The tritium concentration in the gas mixture, estimated on the basis of the present results, varied between 1.5{\%} and 6.7{\%} according to the assumptions used.},
 author = {Yamamoto, Yasushi and Konda, Hiroki and Matsuyama, Yuki and Osawa, Hodaka and Ohnishi, Masami},
 year = {2017},
 title = {Characteristics of Gas Mixture Supply/Pressure Control Using Non-Evaporable Getters in a Discharge-Type Fusion Neutron Source},
 keywords = {D-T pressure control;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;non-evaporable getter pump},
 pages = {773--779},
 volume = {72},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.1080/15361055.2017.1347461}
}


@patent{YAMAMOTOMASASHI.20150319,
 author = {{YAMAMOTO MASASHI} and {HACHIYA MASAHIKO} and {TAKIGAWA MASAHIRO}},
 year = {2015/03/19},
 title = {NEUTRON IRRADIATION DEVICE},
 url = {https://lens.org/010-963-716-862-736},
 number = {JP 2016177930 A}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2000,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ogasawara, Kazuki and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Sunaga, Yoshitaka and Ko, Kwancheol and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Pulsed operation of spherically convergent beam fusion device},
 booktitle = {IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS)},
 year = {2000}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2000b,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ogasawara, Kazuki and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Sunaga, Yoshitaka and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Neutron Source Based on Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion},
 booktitle = {SOURCE2000},
 year = {2000}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2000c,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ogasawara, Kazuki and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Sunaga, Yoshitaka and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Measurements of Potential Profile and Emission Properties in Spherically Convergent Beam Fusion Device},
 publisher = {{National Institute for Fusion Science}},
 booktitle = {11th Int. Toko Conf.},
 year = {2000}
}


@article{Yamauchi.2001,
 abstract = {Experimental results of spherical glow discharge for a portable neutron source are presented. An experimental device consisting of a 45-cm-diam, 31-cm-high stainless steel cylindrical chamber was constructed in which a spherical mesh-type 30-cm-diam anode was installed. A spherical grid cathode made of 1.2-mm-diam stainless steel wire was made into a 7-cm-diam open spherical grid. The system was maintained at a constant pressure of 1 to 15 mTorr by feeding hydrogen or deuterium gas. The visible and ultraviolet emissions from the device were measured using the spectroscopic method. Strong emission lines of hydrogen were observed, and all hydrogen lines were broadened, remarkably, by Doppler and/or Stark effects. From these data, beam ion velocity, electron density and temperature of the core plasma were estimated. Using deuterium gas, a steady-state neutron production rate of 104 s-1 was observed at a discharge of 40 kV, 2 mA. In the low-current region of several milliamperes, the neutron production rate was proportional to the discharge current to the power from $\sim$1.1 to 1.4. The beam-background reactions were dominant in the measured range of voltage and current.},
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ogasawara, Kazuki and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Sunaga, Yoshitaka and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Neutron production characteristics and emission properties of spherically convergent beam fusion},
 keywords = {Beam fusion;glow discharge;neutron source},
 pages = {1182--1187},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A171}
}


@article{Yamauchi.2001b,
 abstract = {Abstract Experimental and simulation results of a spherical glow discharge for a portable neutron source are presented. The experimental device is a 45-cm-diameter, 31-cm-high stainless-steel cylindrical chamber, in which a spherical mesh-type anode 30 cm in diameter is installed. The spherical grid cathode consists of 2.0-mm-diameter stainless-steel wire, which is made into an open spherical grid of 5-cm diameter. The system is maintained at a constant pressure of 1 to 15 mTorr by feeding hydrogen or deuterium gas. The basic characteristics of breakdown voltages versus pressure and electrostatic potential profiles were measured for hydrogen discharge. Using deuterium, a steady-state neutron production of 104 s?1 was observed at a discharge of 40 kV, 2 mA. Motions of ions and electrons in the device were simulated by using a particle code, which is one-dimensional in coordinate system and two-dimensional in velocity space. It was confirmed by both the measurement and simulation that a virtual anode is formed in the central part inside the grid cathode. ? 2001 Scripta Technica, Electr Eng Jpn, 135(2): 1?8, 2001},
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Takeuchi, Yasushi and Ogino, Yutaka and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Sunaga, Yoshitaka and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Neutron production rate and plasma characteristics of spherically convergent beam fusion},
 keywords = {Beam fusion;neutron production rate;neutron source;Plasma;spherical},
 pages = {1--8},
 volume = {135},
 number = {2},
 issn = {0424-7760},
 journal = {Electrical Engineering in Japan},
 doi = {10.1002/eej.1}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2002,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ogasawara, Kazuki and Tomiyasu, Kunihiko and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Pulsed discharge characteristics of spherically convergent beam fusion},
 booktitle = {The 32nd International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS), 2002},
 year = {2002},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.2002.1030497}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2003,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Tomiyasu, Kunihiko and Okino, Akitoshi and Watanabe, Masato and Kohno, Toshiyuki and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Pulsed Operation of Fusion Neutron Source Using Inertial Electrostatic Confinement},
 booktitle = {26th International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases (ICPIG)},
 year = {2003}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2003b,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Kohno, Toshiyuki and Hotta, Eiki},
 title = {Characteristics of neutron source based on radially convergent beam fusion},
 booktitle = {The 30th International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS), 2003},
 year = {2003},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.2003.1230082}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2004,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Tashiro, Atsushi and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Kohno, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yuura, Morimasa},
 title = {Fundamental study of proton source based on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion for medical positron emission tomography},
 booktitle = {The 31st IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science, ICOPS2004},
 year = {2004},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.2004.1339662}
}


@article{Yamauchi.2005,
 abstract = {Preliminary experimental results of pulsed neutron source based on a discharge-type beam fusion called Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) for landmine detection are presented. In Japan, a research and development project for constructing an advanced anti-personnel landmine detection system by using IECF, which is effective not only for metal landmines but also for plastic ones, is now in progress. This project consists of some R{\&}D topics, and one of them is R{\&}D of a high-voltage pulse generator system specialized for landmine detection, which can be used in the severe environment such as that in the field in Afghanistan. Thus a prototype of the system for landmine detection was designed and fabricated in consideration of compactness, lightness, cooling performance, dustproof and robustness. By using this prototype pulse generator system, a conventional IECF device was operated as a preliminary experiment. As a result, it was confirmed that the suggested pulse generator system is suitable for landmine detection system, and the results follow the empirical law obtained by the previous experiments. The maximum neutron production rate of 2.0$\times$108 n/s was obtained at a pulsed discharge of-51 kV, 7.3 A.},
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Kohno, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yuura, Morimasa},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Pulsed operation of a compact fusion neutron source using a high-voltage pulse generator developed for landmine detection},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744402753&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A855&partnerID=40&md5=667d80a366fca148777b05dcfb507fd8},
 keywords = {Beam fusion;Electric potential;Electrostatics;Explosives;Fusion devices;Fusion reactions;Gamma rays;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);Landmine detection systems;Metal detectors;Neutron sources;Pulse generators;Research and development management},
 pages = {1229--1232},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A855}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2005c,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohura, Sonoe and Tashiro, Atsushi and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Kohno, Toshiyuki and Hotta, Eiki and Yuura, Morimasa},
 title = {Improvement of proton source based on cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion with ion source},
 url = {https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:37095627},
 keywords = {Charged particles;CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS;COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY;CONFIGURATION;Confinement;CUSPED GEOMETRIES;CYLINDRICAL CONFIGURATION;deuterons;Diagnostic techniques;Electrodes;ELECTROSTATIC MIRRORS;ELEMENTS;EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY;GENERAL PHYSICS (S71);Hydrogen;Inertial confinement;Ion sources;MAGNETIC FIELD CONFIGURATIONS;MIRRORS;Neutron sources;Nonmetals;OPEN CONFIGURATIONS;PARTICLE SOURCES;Plasma confinement;POSITRON COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY;PROTON SOURCES;RADIATION SOURCES;TOMOGRAPHY},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st IEEE/NPS Symposium on Fusion Engineering SOFE 05},
 year = {2005}
}


@article{Yamauchi.2006,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohura, Sonoe and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Kohno, Toshiyuki and Hotta, Eiki and Yuura, Morimasa},
 year = {2006},
 title = {Performance of Neutron/Proton Source Based on Ion-Source-Assisted Cylindrical Radially Convergent Beam Fusion},
 pages = {1177--1182},
 volume = {126},
 number = {11},
 journal = {IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Material},
 doi = {10.1541/ieejfms.126.1177}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2006b,
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohura, Sonoe and Nozaki, Kei and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, Akitoshi and Kohno, Toshiyuki and Hotta, Eiki and Yuura, Morimasa},
 title = {D-D and D-/sup 3/He proton measurements of cylindrical radially convergent beam fusion},
 booktitle = {The 33rd IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science (ICOPS), 2006},
 year = {2006},
 doi = {10.1109/PLASMA.2006.1706959}
}


@article{Yamauchi.2007,
 abstract = {Radially convergent beam fusion (RCBF) has been studied for practical use as a portable neutron/proton source for various applications such as landmine detection and positron emission tomography. In a conventional RCBF device using a glow discharge, the neutron/proton production rate is proportional to the cathode current because beam-background reactions are dominant in contrast with the original RCBF concept. However, since the neutron/proton production rate of beam-beam reactions is proportional to the cathode current squared, beam-beam reactions have a potential to increase the neutron/proton production rate in a high cathode current region. In this study, a new RCBF system using differentially-pumped ion sources was designed for the low pressure operation without the glow discharge. In the RCBF chamber, a cylindrical grid cathode is concentrically placed on the axis of a cylindrical mesh anode, and two ion sources are oppositely mounted around the mesh anode. The ion sources allow the RCBF device to be operated at a pressure of 10(-4) Torr in the RCBF chamber, which is much lower than that of 10(-1) Torr in the ion sources. Generated ions in the ion sources are extracted through each orifice by the pressure gradient and the extraction electric field, and then accelerated to the RCBF cathode. At first, a performance as differential pumping system and discharge characteristics of ion sources were investigated. Then, the neutron production rate at a lower pressure compared with that of a conventional RCBF device was measured. Neutron production rate at a pressure of 0.30 mTorr was proportional to the ion current to the power of 1.19-1.23. This implies that the fraction of beam-beam reactions was increased by the reduction of background pressure in the RCBF chamber.},
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Nozaki, Kei and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Low pressure operation of radially convergent beam fusion using differentially-pumped ion sources},
 keywords = {beamfusion;device;INERTIAL-ELECTROSTATIC CONFINEMENT;neutron source;Proton source},
 pages = {270--273},
 journal = {22nd Ieee/Npss Symposium on Fusion Engineering}
}


@inproceedings{Yamauchi.2009,
 abstract = {The inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion has been mainly studied for application to a neutron source. However, it also has a potential applicable to a proton source. The IEC fusion system as a proton source has some advantages of low cost, portableness and easy handling compared with an accelerator such as a cyclotron. In this study, an IEC device was designed and tested for a proton source in order to produce a short-life radioisotope used for a medical positron emission tomography (PET). The device is made of 393-mm diameter, 342-mm high stainless steel cylindrical chamber, in which an open cylindrical grid anode of 200-mm diameter and an open cylindrical grid cathode of 40-mm diameter are set on the axis. In addition, a bucket-type ion source, which consists of sixteen ferrite magnets and sixteen filaments, is integrated with the chamber. A high voltage power supply of 100 kV, 100 mA for dc operation and 10 A for pulsed operation was also designed and used for the IEC device. By using this system, basic discharge characteristics, such as breakdown voltage versus pressure, operating voltage versus discharge current, etc. with changing gas pressure, were measured for hydrogen discharge. Then proton production rate was measured for deuterium discharge with changing operating voltage and discharge current.},
 author = {Yamauchi, Kunihito and Tashiro, Atsushi and Watanabe, Masato and Okino, A. and Kohno, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yuura, Morimasa},
 title = {Fundamental study of proton source based on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion for medical positron emission tomography},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-13244260730&partnerID=40&md5=cf5b7e16012ff3e0d6fceaba56d7b5c1},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Costs;Deuterium;Deuterium discharge;Discharge current;Electric breakdown;Electric discharges;Electrostatics;Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion;Ion sources;Magnets;Medical applications;neutron source;Neutrons;Positron emission tomography;Pressure effects;Protons;Stainless steel},
 urldate = {28 June 2004 through 1 July 2004},
 pages = {139},
 booktitle = {The 31st IEEE International Conference on Plasma Science, ICOPS2004},
 year = {2004}
}


@book{Yao.2012b,
 year = {2012},
 title = {Zero-Carbon Energy Kyoto 2011: Special Edition of Jointed Symposium of Kyoto University Global COE {\textquotedbl}Energy Science in the Age of Global Warming{\textquotedbl} and Ajou University BK21},
 publisher = {{Springer Tokyo}},
 isbn = {1865-3529},
 editor = {Yao, Takeshi},
 doi = {10.1007/978-4-431-54067-0}
}


@proceedings{Yasuda.September20241993,
 year = {1994},
 title = {Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems: Icenes '93 - Proceedings Of The Seventh International Conference},
 publisher = {{WORLD SCIENTIFIC}},
 isbn = {9810217196, 9789810217198},
 editor = {Yasuda, Hideshi}
}


@article{Yokoyama.2010,
 abstract = {Neutron Transmutation Doping (NTD), which is one of the semiconductor manufacturing methods, can produce impurity semiconductor with high quality. The neutron source currently used in the NTD is a nuclear reactor, which has some problems such as to become too old for use. Hence development of a new neutron source, which enables uniform irradiation, is desired. A new Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) device with a coaxial double cylindrical structure, which is especially designed to be capable of uniform neutron irradiation, was developed. As the feature of the device, it has triple electrode structure which consists of a cylindrical grid cathode between inner and outer anodes. Neutrons are centralized in the center of the device, and uniform neutron flux is obtained there. The device achieved a neutron production rate of 1.5 $\times$ 106 n/s, and uniform neutron flux distribution was provided in the central hole of device. The largest size of the uniform neutron flux area was 35.2{\%} (25 cm) of sample irradiation area in the axial direction, and 54.3{\%} (10 cm) in the radial direction. {\copyright} 2010 The Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan.},
 author = {Yokoyama, Kai and Jinushi, Y. and Tomiyasu, Kunihiko and Watanabe, Masato and Hotta, Eiki},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Development of a compact neutron source for NTD and measurement of neutron flux distribution},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-78049430216&doi=10.1541%2fieejfms.130.787&partnerID=40&md5=cead55b53785f232d912e47afbaa9403},
 keywords = {Axial direction;Cylindrical structure;Electrode structure;Electrostatics;Fusion;High quality;Inertial electrostatic confinement;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Neutron beams;Neutron flux;Neutron flux distributions;Neutron irradiation;Neutron production rates;neutron source;Neutron sources;Neutron transmutation doping;Nuclear propulsion;Nuclear reactors;Plasma;Radial direction;Semiconductor manufacturing},
 pages = {787-792+2},
 volume = {130},
 number = {9},
 issn = {03854205},
 journal = {IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Materials},
 doi = {10.1541/ieejfms.130.787}
}


@inproceedings{Yoshikawa.1999,
 abstract = {Real time measurements of the electric fields were made in the central cathode core region of an Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion (IECF) device by the laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) method by use of the Stark effects. Preliminary results show double well potential formation with a slight concave at the center and also the existence of energetic electrons in the localized region near potential peaks.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Takiyama, Ken and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Koyama, Takahiro and Taruya, Kenji and Hashimoto, Hirofumi and Ohnishi, Masami and Horiike, Hiroshi and Inoue, Nobuyuki},
 title = {Real time measurements of strongly localized potential profile through stark effects in the central core region of an inertial-electrostatic fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0033293859&partnerID=40&md5=ce97b0452b94bca28b1adb03f382d435},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric field measurement;Electric potential;Electrons;Electrostatics;Fluorescence;Fusion reactors;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Inertial electrostatic fusion device;Laser applications;Optically pumped lasers;Plasma confinement;Potential well formation;Solid state lasers;Stark effects},
 urldate = {25 October 1999 through 29 October 1999},
 pages = {27--30},
 booktitle = {18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. Symposium Proceedings},
 year = {1999}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2001,
 abstract = {Strongly localized electric fields were measured in the central cathode He plasma core region of an Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Fusion (IECF) device by using the laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) method as well as plasma core diameter to examine their correlations. It was found that the FWHM of plasma core diameter increases slightly with the increasing ion beam perveance. Comparison of the intensity profile of the plasma core is made with that of the electric quadrupole moment (QDP) component. For the cases of potential profiles with one peak, the peak positions show good correspondence with each other, while the profiles themselves are vastly different to each other.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Koyama, T. and Taruya, Kenji and Hashimoto, H. and Nagafuchi, Akihiro and Mizutani, Toshiyuki and Ohnishi, M. and Takiyama, Ken and Horiike, Hiroshi and Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Yamamoto, Y. and Inoue, Nobuyuki},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Measurements of plasma core properties in an inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion device},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-6644224940&doi=10.13182%2ffst01-a11963283&partnerID=40&md5=386d9a60d4169e1bac509aa14a2c1cc2},
 keywords = {Electrostatic devices;Fluorescence;Fusion reactors;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);ion beams;Laser fusion;Plasma confinement;Reactor cores},
 pages = {486--491},
 volume = {39},
 number = {2},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/fst01-a11963283}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2001b,
 abstract = {Direct measurements of localized electric fields have been made by the laser induced fluorescence (LIF) method using the Stark effect in the central cathode core region of an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) neutron (proton) source. These are expected to have various applications, such as luggage security inspection, non-destructive testing, land mine detection and positron emitter production for cancer detection, currently producing continuously about 107 n/s D-D neutrons. Since 1967, when the first fusion reaction was successfully proved to have taken place in a very compact IECF device, potential well formation due to the space charge associated with spherically converging ion beams has been a central key issue remaining to be clarified in beam-beam collision fusion, which is the major mechanism of the IECF neutron source. Many experiments, although indirect, have been done so far to clarify the nature of the potential well, but none of them has produced definitive evidence. The results found by the present LIF method show a double well potential profile with a slight dip for ion beams with relatively larger angular momenta, whereas for ions with smaller angular momenta, a much steeper potential peak develops.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Takiyama, Ken and Koyama, T. and Taruya, Kenji and Masuda, Kai and Yamamoto, Y. and Toku, T. and Kii, T. and Hashimoto, H. and Inoue, Nobuyuki and Ohnishi, M. and Horiike, Hiroshi},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Measurements of strongly localized potential well profiles in an inertial electrostatic fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0035384243&doi=10.1088%2f0029-5515%2f41%2f6%2f306&partnerID=40&md5=d84eb15f26a164007bee38c728ef1d48},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Electric field effects;Electric space charge;Electrostatics;Fluorescence;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions (IECF);ion beams;Laser fusion;Neutron sources;Nondestructive examination;Potential well formations},
 pages = {717--720},
 volume = {41},
 number = {6},
 issn = {00295515},
 journal = {Nuclear Fusion},
 doi = {10.1088/0029-5515/41/6/306}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2001d,
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Special issue on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion - Associate editor's comments},
 pages = {III},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2001h,
 abstract = {Strongly localized electric fields were measured in the central cathode helium plasma core region of an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device by using laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) by the degree of polarization and by the longitudinal alignment methods. Both results show double well potential formation with a slight concave at the center in excellent agreement. The decay time of the excited states is found to indicate least effects by the collisions to ensure the LIF method.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Takiyama, Ken and Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Koyama, Takahiro and Taruya, Kenji and Hashimoto, Hirofumi and Yamamoto, Yasushi and Ohnishi, Masami and Horiike, Hiroshi and Inoue, Nobuyuki},
 year = {2001},
 title = {Strongly Localized Potential Profile Measurements Through Stark Effects in the Central Core Region of an Inertial Electrostatic Fusion Device},
 url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.13182/FST01-A173},
 keywords = {CONVERGENT ION FOCUS;ELECTRIC-FIELD;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion;Laser-induced fluorescence method;Plasma;Potential well measurement},
 pages = {1193--1201},
 volume = {39},
 number = {3},
 issn = {07481896},
 journal = {Fusion Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST01-A173}
}


@inproceedings{Yoshikawa.2002,
 abstract = {Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) was used to perform potential measurements of the star-mode discharge in an inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) device. The hollow cathode without insulator showed high voltage-holding capability of up to 60 kV to operate the star-mode discharge. Results showed no potential or electric fields compared with the center-spot mode discharge.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Takiyama, Ken and Masuda, Kai and Yamamoto, Y. and Toku, Hisayuki and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Hashimoto, H. and Nagafuchi, Akihiro and Mizutani, Toshiyuki and Ohnishi, M. and Horiike, Hiroshi},
 title = {Potential profile measurements by laser-induced fluorescence method in a helium discharge plasma},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0036373304&partnerID=40&md5=64f9e4913ea9dff7b2c1268d63a28980},
 keywords = {Cathodes;Dye lasers;Electric discharges;Fluorescence;helium;Ions;Laser applications;Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF);Neodymium lasers;Plasma confinement;Plasma devices},
 urldate = {22 January 2002 through 25 January 2002},
 pages = {438--441},
 publisher = {IEEE},
 booktitle = {Proceedings of the 19th IEEE/IPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering. 19th SOFE},
 year = {2002},
 address = {Atlantic City, NJ, USA},
 doi = {10.1109/FUSION.2002.1027731}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2003,
 abstract = {A magnetron discharge was adopted in the inertial-electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion device for drastic improvement of fusion reaction rate. With this discharge in the vicinity of the vacuum chamber, a substantial number of ions produced there are expected to have almost full energy corresponding to the applied voltage to the transparent IEC cathode under relatively low pressures compared with the conventional glow discharge. The magnetron discharge is found to occur even for the pressure of 0.07 mTorr (H2) in the present configuration of the experiment, compared with 5 mTorr in the glow discharge.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Toku, Hisayuki and Mizutani, Toshiyuki and Nagafuchi, Akihiro and Imoto, M. and Takamatsu, T.},
 year = {2003},
 title = {Magnetron discharge characteristics for improvement of an inertial electrostatic confinement neutron/proton source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0041786689&doi=10.13182%2fFST03-A391&partnerID=40&md5=fa05a644d81f4a29f0a9c1de5f2e3dbe},
 keywords = {Fusion reactions;Fusion reactors;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device;ion beams;Ion sources;Magnetron discharge characteristic;Magnetrons;Neutron sources;Pressure;Proton source},
 pages = {529--533},
 volume = {44},
 number = {2},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST03-A391}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2005,
 abstract = {Current results are described on the research and development of an advanced anti-personnel landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement Fusion). Landmines are to be identified through backscattering of neutrons, and specific-energy capture \textgreek{g}-rays by hydrogen and nitrogen atoms in the landmine explosives. For this purpose, improvements in the IECF were made by various methods to achieve a drastic enhancement of neutron yields of more than 108 n/s in pulsed operation. This required R{\&}D on the power source, as well as analysis of envisaged detection systems with multi-sensors. The results suggest promising and practical features for humanitarian landmine detection, particularly, in Afghanistan.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Nagasaki, Kazunobu and Mizutani, Toshiyuki and Takamatsu, T. and Imoto, M. and Yamamoto, Y. and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H. and Hotta, Eiki and Kohno, T. and Okino, A. and Watanabe, Masato and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Yuura, Morimasa and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Mori, T.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Research and development of landmine detection system by a compact fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-20844442284&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A854&partnerID=40&md5=9430c284e55f948c0f5add4b551902f9},
 keywords = {Backscattering;Cathodes;Deuterium;Explosives;Fusion reactions;Gamma rays;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);Landmine detection systems;Metal detectors;Multi-sensors;Neutron sources;Neutron yields;Research and development management;Vacuum},
 pages = {1224--1228},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A854}
}


@inproceedings{Yoshikawa.2007,
 abstract = {Current results are described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion) devices. With a 50 mm-thick water-jacketed IEC device (IEC20C) of 200 mm inner diameter can have produced 107 neutrons/s stably in CW mode for 80 kV and 80 mA. Ample 10.8 MeV y-rays produced through (n, y) reaction with nitrogen atoms in the melamine (C3H 6N6) powder (explosive simulant) are clearly measured by a BGO-NaI-combined scintillation sensor with distinct difference in case of with/without melamine, indicating identification of the buried landmines feasible.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Takamatsu, T. and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Shiroya, Seiji and Hotta, Eiki and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H.},
 title = {Research and development of humanitarian landmine detection system by a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-35949003598&doi=10.1117%2f12.718069&partnerID=40&md5=c1e64ffce59a418cc2f5d3199a84f962},
 keywords = {Chemical sensors;D-D fusion neutron source;Explosive Detection;Explosives;Fusion reactions;Inertial electrostatic confinement;Landmine detection;Melamine;Mines;Neutron capture reaction;Neutrons;Nitrogen},
 volume = {6553},
 booktitle = {Proc. SPIE 6553, Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets XII},
 year = {2007},
 doi = {10.1117/12.718069}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2007b,
 abstract = {Current results are described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion) devices. With a 50 mm-thick water-jacketed IEC device (IEC20C) of a 200 mm inner diameter, it can produce 107 neutrons/s stably in CW mode for 80 kV and 80 mA. Ample 10.8 MeV \textgreek{g}-rays produced through (n, \textgreek{g}) reaction with nitrogen atoms in the melamine (C3H6N6) powder (explosive simulant) are clearly measured by a BGO-NaI-combined scintillation sensor with distinct difference in cases with and without melamine. This proves feasibility of the identification of the buried landmines. {\copyright} 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, T. and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Hotta, Eiki and Ohnishi, M. and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Osawa, H. and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Research and development of a compact discharge-driven D-D fusion neutron source for explosive detection},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-34447259854&doi=10.1016%2fj.nimb.2007.04.026&partnerID=40&md5=ce7963030e2293b8e766b01d2129e205},
 keywords = {BNCT;Compact neutron/proton source;Explosive Detection;Explosives;Fusion reactions;Gamma rays;IECF (inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion);Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF);Neutron sources;Nitrogen;Positron emitter isotope production;Scintillation;Sensors},
 pages = {299--302},
 volume = {261},
 number = {1-2 SPEC. ISS},
 issn = {0168583X},
 journal = {Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms},
 doi = {10.1016/j.nimb.2007.04.026}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2007c,
 abstract = {Current results are described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion) devices. With a 50 mm-thick water-jacketed IEC device (IEC20C) of 200 mm inner diameter can have produced 107 neutrons/s stably in CW mode for 80 kV and 80 mA. Ample 10.8 MeV \textgreek{g}-rays produced through (n, \textgreek{g}) reaction with nitrogen atoms in the melamine (C 3H6N6) powder (explosive simulant) are clearly measured by a BGO-Nal-combined scintillation sensor with distinct difference in case of with/without melamine, indicating identification of the buried landmines feasible.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H.},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Research and development on humanitarian landmine detection system by use of a compact D-D fusion neutron source},
 keywords = {Electric discharges;Explosive simulant;Explosives;Fusion neutron source;Fusion reactions;Gamma rays;Humanitarian landmine detection systems;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion;Melamine;Neutrons;Reaction kinetics},
 pages = {1092--1095},
 volume = {52},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST07-A1642}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2007g,
 abstract = {Current results are described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion) devices. With a 50 mm-thick water-jacketed IEC device (IEC20C) of a 200 mm inner diameter, it can produce 107 neutrons/s stably in CW mode for 80 kV and 80 mA. Ample 10.8 MeV \textgreek{g}-rays produced through (n, \textgreek{g}) reaction with nitrogen atoms in the melamine (C3H6N6) powder (explosive simulant) are clearly measured by a BGO-NaI-combined scintillation sensor with distinct difference in cases with and without melamine. This proves feasibility of the identification of the buried landmines. {\copyright} 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, Teruhisa and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Hotta, Eiki and Ohnishi, Masami and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Osawa, Hodaka and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki},
 year = {2007},
 title = {Research and development of a compact discharge-driven D--D fusion neutron source for explosive detection},
 url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168583X07007719},
 keywords = {BNCT;Compact neutron/proton source;Explosive Detection;IECF (inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion);Positron emitter isotope production},
 pages = {299--302},
 volume = {261},
 number = {1-2},
 journal = {Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms},
 doi = {10.1016/j.nimb.2007.04.026}
}


@inproceedings{Yoshikawa.2008,
 abstract = {A 5-year task is described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial- Electrostatic Confinement Fusion) device and 3 dual sensors made of BGO and Nal(Tl). With 107 D-D neutrons/s stably produced in steady-state mode, H- 2.2 MeV, N-5.3, 10.8 MeV. \textgreek{g} rays from (n, \textgreek{g}) reaction with hydrogen and nitrogen atoms in the explosives are measured for two kinds of explosives (TNT, RDX), under the conditions of three different buried depths, and soil moistures each. Final probabilities of detection for arid soil are found to be 100 {\%} in the present tests. The neutron backscattering method is also found to be efficient. {\copyright} 2009 American Institute of Physics.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, T. and Yamamoto, Y. and Toku, Hisayuki and Fujimoto, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H. and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Kubo, Yoshikazu and Doi, T.},
 title = {Results of the Development of Humanitarian Landmine Detection System by a Compact Fusion Neutron Source and Dual Sensors},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-65349176432&doi=10.1063%2f1.3120122&partnerID=40&md5=98b627626cbcf9d7250a9a05ff0fa66a},
 keywords = {Compact neutron/proton source;Explosive Detection;Humanitarian landmine detection;Inertial- Electrostatic confinement fusion;Neutron backscatter;Neutron-capture gamma},
 urldate = {10 August 2008 through 15 August 2008},
 pages = {652--655},
 volume = {1099},
 booktitle = {AIP Conference Proceedings},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.1063/1.3120122}
}


@inproceedings{Yoshikawa.2008b,
 abstract = {Results of 5 years task are described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF(Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion) device and dual sensors made of BGO and NaI. With 10 7 neutrons/s stably produced in CW mode, 10.8 MeV. \textgreek{g} rays from (n, \textgreek{g}) reaction with nitrogen atoms in the explosives (explosive simulant in our study) are measured for two kinds of explosives(TNT, RDX), under the conditions of three different buried depths, and soil moistures. Tentative detection probability for arid soil is found to be in excess of 80{\%}. {\copyright} 2007 IEEE.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Yamamoto, Y. and Masuda, Kai and Toku, Hisayuki and Takamatsu, T. and Fujimoto, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H. and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Takiyama, Ken and Kubo, Yoshikazu},
 title = {Research and development of the humanitarian landmine detection system by a compact fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-48349124706&doi=10.1109%2fNSSMIC.2007.4437202&partnerID=40&md5=dd3d8a6119c01098a5356acad4f0bfef},
 keywords = {Arid soils;Bombs (ordnance);Buried depths;CW modes;Detection probabilities;Dual sensors;Elementary particle sources;Explosives;Fusion neutron sources;Groundwater;Landmine detection systems;Medical imaging;Metal detectors;Neutron sources;Nitration;Nitrogen atoms;Research and development management;Research and developments;Soil moisture;Soils},
 urldate = {27 October 2007 through 3 November 2007},
 pages = {1110--1114},
 booktitle = {2007 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record},
 year = {2008},
 doi = {10.1109/NSSMIC.2007.4437202}
}


@incollection{Yoshikawa.2009,
 abstract = {An anti-personnel landmine detection system using an inertial-electrostatic confinement fusion (IECF) neutron source and dual sensors showed excellent performance, particularly, for humanitarian landmine detection. Averaged probability of detection (POD) in this test was found to be 100{\%} for arid soil, and 99{\%} for other conditions including very wet soil moisture of 18.5wt{\%}. Further improvements in reliability by making use of neutron backscattering are found to be efficient. {\copyright} 2009 Springer London.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, T. and Yamamoto, Y. and Toku, Hisayuki and Fujimoto, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H. and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Kubo, Yoshikazu and Doi, T.},
 title = {Development of a high-performance landmine detection system through gamma-ray detection by using a compact fusion neutron source and dual-sensors},
 keywords = {Compact fusion D-D neutron source;Dual-sensor;Neutron capture \textgreek{g}-rays;RandD of humanitarian demining},
 pages = {157--173},
 publisher = {{Springer London}},
 isbn = {1848823460},
 editor = {Furuta, Katsuhisa and Ishikawa, Jun},
 booktitle = {Anti-personnel landmine detection for humanitarian demining},
 year = {2009},
 doi = {10.1007/978-1-84882-346-4{\textunderscore }10}
}


@article{Yoshikawa.2009b,
 abstract = {A 5 year task is described on the research and development of the advanced humanitarian landmine detection system by using a compact discharge-type fusion neutron source called IECF (Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement fusion) device and 3 dual sensors made of BGO and NaI. With 107 D-D neutrons/s stably produced in steady-state mode, H-2.2 MeV, N-5.3, 10.8 MeV, \textgreek{g} rays from ( n,\textgreek{g}) reaction with nitrogen atoms in the explosives are measured for two kinds of explosives (TNT, RDX), under the conditions of three different buried depths, and soil moistures. Final detection probabilities for arid soil are found to be 100 {\%} in the present tests, i.e., depths not exceeding 15 cm, moisture content of 18.5 {\%} or less, and 20-minute measurements. The neutron backscattering method is found also excellent. {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Yoshikawa, Kiyoshi and Masuda, Kai and Takamatsu, T. and Yamamoto, Y. and Toku, Hisayuki and Fujimoto, T. and Hotta, Eiki and Yamauchi, Kunihito and Ohnishi, M. and Osawa, H. and Shiroya, Seiji and Misawa, Tsuyoshi and Takahashi, Yoshiyuki and Kubo, Yoshikazu and Doi, T.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {Research and development of the humanitarian landmine detection system by a compact fusion neutron source},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-67649207849&doi=10.1109%2fTNS.2008.2009118&partnerID=40&md5=1d66cf69fff6f07d3690e8ce1173abe2},
 keywords = {Arid soils;Bombs (ordnance);Buried depth;Compact fusion neutron source;Detection probabilities;Dual sensor;Explosives;Fusion neutron source;Groundwater;Inertial-electrostatic confinement fusions;Landmine detection systems;Metal detectors;Moisture contents;Moisture determination;Neutron backscattering;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Nitrogen atom;Research and development;Soil moisture;Steady state mode},
 pages = {1193--1202},
 volume = {56},
 number = {3},
 issn = {00189499},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TNS.2008.2009118}
}


@article{Yoshinaga.2005,
 abstract = {Fast neutral generation by charge exchange reaction in inertial electrostatic confinement plasmas is studied by solving the Poisson equation and the Boltzmann equation for fast neutrals. Fusion reactions carried by the charge exchange fast neutrals become appreciable compared with ion-background fusion reaction. It is shown that the fusion reaction between fast neutral and background gas is sensitively affected by experimental parameters (grid voltage, background gas pressure) and ion distribution function.},
 author = {Yoshinaga, S. and Matsuura, Hideaki and Nakao, Y. and Kudo, K.},
 year = {2005},
 title = {Fast neutral generation by charge exchange reaction and its effect on neutron production rate in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion systems},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-18744363048&doi=10.13182%2fFST05-A864&partnerID=40&md5=abf362f2aa1ca98e4df920bf86652ec1},
 keywords = {Deuterium;Elastic scattering;Electrostatics;Functions;helium;High-energy fuel ions;Inertial confinement fusion;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC);Integral equations;Ionization;Ionization reactions;Mathematical models;Nuclear physics;Poisson equation},
 pages = {1275--1279},
 volume = {47},
 number = {4},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST05-A864}
}


@article{Yousefi.2011,
 abstract = {In this experiment, the spherical discharge is investigated in low pressure. The images show a well-defined electron beam and a confined plasma in the cathode region. It is shown that, by increasing the gas pressure, the electron beam disappears and the plasma is confined inside the cathode. {\copyright} 2006 IEEE.},
 author = {Yousefi, M. and Damideh, V. and Ghomi, H.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Low-energy electron beam extraction from spherical discharge},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-81255161699&doi=10.1109%2fTPS.2011.2159130&partnerID=40&md5=e247c2e51a17337c3e6008f6bd2980a3},
 keywords = {Cathode region;Cathodes;Confined plasmas;Electric discharges;electron beam;Electron beams;Electrons;Gas pressures;inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) device;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Low energy electron beams;Low pressures;Plasma confinement;Spheres;spherical discharge},
 pages = {2554--2555},
 volume = {39},
 number = {11 PART 1},
 issn = {00933813},
 journal = {IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science},
 doi = {10.1109/TPS.2011.2159130}
}


@phdthesis{Yu.2015,
 author = {Yu, Zefeng},
 year = {2015},
 title = {Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC) Device as Plasma Injection Source},
 school = {{University of Washington}},
 type = {BSc Thesis}
}


@article{Zaeem.2019,
 abstract = {In this paper thin Aluminum strip has been used to construct a low resistance low inductance magnet. This new magnet has relatively high bore diameter designed for magnetization of plasma in small sized fusion neutron generators; e.g. electrostatic confinement devices. This magnet enables us to use 900 Volts/33 mFarad capacitor bank. The small sized and comparatively low voltage capacitors are able to produce more than 2400A current to produce more than 2 Tesla magnetic field inside the 11 cm diameter bore without any coolant. The maximum current density for this coil was measured as 12 kA/cm2 that lasts for about 60 ms (with rise time of 7.5 ms). This relatively low current density decreases the destructive magnetic stress. Analytical and simulation results of the magnetic field profile and the experimental performance of the magnet are described in the paper. {\copyright} 2019 IOP Publishing Ltd and Sissa Medialab.},
 author = {Zaeem, A. A. and Ghafoorifard, H. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Ghorashi, A. H.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Development of an efficient pulsed magnet for improvement of inertial electrostatic confinement fusion},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85062490840&doi=10.1088%2f1748-0221%2f14%2f01%2fT01009&partnerID=40&md5=fde89339b6456a6c46d444038183649c},
 keywords = {Acceleration cavities and magnets superconducting (high-temperature superconductor;Electrostatic confinement devices;Electrostatic devices;Electrostatics;High temperature superconductors;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Low voltage capacitors;Magnetic field profile;Magnetic fields;Maximum current density;Neutron sources;normal-conducting;permanent magnet devices;Permanent magnets;Pulsed power;Pulsed-power;radiation hardened magnets;Radiation-hardened;Superconducting magnets;Wigglers;wigglers and undulators)},
 volume = {14},
 number = {1},
 issn = {17480221},
 journal = {Journal of Instrumentation},
 doi = {10.1088/1748-0221/14/01/T01009}
}


@article{Zaeem.2019b,
 abstract = {Effect of strong pulsed magnetic field on the discharge behavior of a cylindrical inertial electrostatic (IEC) device has been investigated both theoretically and experimentally. By applying strong pulsed magnetic field in a new fabricated miniature cylindrical IEC device equipped with Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP), discharge current amplifications were observed at ordinary pressures as well as low pressure ICP-assisted operational regime with deuterium gas. The obtained results indicate the evidence for significant amplification of discharge current up to more than one hundred times. Since the neutron production rate has been previously proven to be linearly dependent on the discharge current, then this study might open new investigations for probable increment of fusion reaction rates in IEC devices with additional strong magnetic field. {\copyright} 2019 Elsevier Ltd},
 author = {Zaeem, A. A. and Ghafoorifard, H. and Sadighzadeh, A.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Discharge current enhancement in inertial electrostatic confinement fusion by impulse high magnetic field},
 keywords = {Electric discharges;Fusion neutrons;Fusion reactions;High magnetic fields;Inductively coupled plasma;Inductively coupled plasma (ICP);Inertial electrostatic confinement;Inertial electrostatic confinement fusions;Magnetic fields;Magnetoplasma;Neutron production rates;Pulsed magnetic fields;Reaction rates;Strong magnetic fields},
 pages = {286--291},
 volume = {166},
 issn = {0042207X},
 journal = {Vacuum},
 doi = {10.1016/j.vacuum.2019.05.012}
}


@article{Zaeem.2019c,
 abstract = {In this paper a cylindrical neutron generator based on inertial electrostatic confinement is designed and constructed. This miniature sized linear neutron generator is equipped with an inductively coupled plasma generator as the pre-ionization system. The preliminary neutron counting results by a 3He detector indicated linear correlation between the discharge current and Neutron Production Rate (NPR) at fixed voltages. The pre-ionization helps to increase the discharge current at fixed pressures therefore the charge exchange reactions does not increase by this method. Primary results represent NPR of 105 n/s at-40 kV cathode voltage that could be increased between 107 to 108 n/s by increment of this voltage up to-80 kV and cathode cooling considerations. {\copyright} 2019 IOP Publishing Ltd and Sissa Medialab.},
 author = {Zaeem, A. A. and Ghafoorifard, H. and Sadighzadeh, A. and Movahhed, M. S.},
 year = {2019},
 title = {Preliminary results of a miniature cylindrical inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device equipped with inductively coupled plasma generator},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85072221924&doi=10.1088%2f1748-0221%2f14%2f07%2fT07007&partnerID=40&md5=270dac89de4d9cd64f2c597d681dfc54},
 keywords = {Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples;Cathodes;Charge transfer;Developmental assessment;Electric discharges;Electrostatic generators;Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder;First nations;Implementation strategies;Implementation strategy;Indigenous communities;Indigenous community;Inductively coupled plasma;Ionization;Laser produced plasmas;Neutron beams;Neutron sources;Neutrons;Plasma devices;Plasma jets;Rural and remote areas},
 volume = {14},
 number = {7},
 issn = {17480221},
 journal = {Journal of Instrumentation},
 doi = {10.1088/1748-0221/14/07/T07007}
}


@article{Zanganeh.2023,
 abstract = {In this work, neutron and gamma shielding were simulated using MCNPX code for an inertial electrostatic confinement Fusion (IECF) device. In this regard, various properties of shields were investigated. Portland reinforced concrete was considered as the first layer. In addition to being effective in reducing the dosage of fast neutrons, concrete layer was also considerably effective in reducing the dose of gamma rays. As for the second and third layers, we opted for paraffin and boric acid based. These layers were chosen based on parameters such as lethargy, macroscopic slowing down power (MSDP), etc. in order to reduce the speed of epithermal neutrons and then absorb the thermal neutrons, thus reducing the transmitted neutron dosage as much as possible. A layer lead was used after these three layers of shielding to attenuate the gamma ray reaching this layer. In this study, a fusion source based on D-T fuel with homogeneous and isotropic radiation of neutrons was used and then dosimetry was performed for different parts. Afterwards, the thickness of the shielding layers was optimized in such a way that the neutron and gamma doses were reduced according to the standards. We found that it is possible to achieve safe neutron and gamma fluxes and doses by applying about 5 layers of 50 cm thickness. We compared the results of our study with the those of another study done on shielding for the IECF device, which were in good agreement.},
 author = {Zanganeh, Hadi and {Nasri Nasrabadi}, Mahdi},
 year = {2023},
 title = {‎Simulation of neutron and gamma shielding for an inertial electrostatic confinement fusion device‎},
 url = {https://rpe.kntu.ac.ir/article_170276.html},
 keywords = {dose;Flux;gamma;IECF device;MCNPX code;Neutron;Shielding},
 pages = {29--41},
 volume = {4},
 number = {3},
 issn = {2645-6397},
 journal = {Radiation Physics and Engineering},
 doi = {10.22034/rpe.2023.384828.1116}
}


@article{Zenobia.2009,
 abstract = {The first wall armor of the inertial confinement fusion reactor chambers must withstand high temperatures and significant radiation damage from target debris and neutrons. The resilience of multiple materials to one component of the target debris has been investigated using energetic (20-40 keV) helium ions generated in the inertial electrostatic confinement device at the University of Wisconsin. The materials studied include: single-crystalline, and polycrystalline tungsten, tungsten-coated tantalum-carbide 'foams', tungsten-rhenium alloy, silicon carbide, carbon-carbon velvet, and tungsten-coated carbon-carbon velvet. Steady-state irradiation temperatures ranged from 750 to 1250 °C with helium fluences between 5 $\times$ 1017 and 1 $\times$ 1020 He+/cm2. The crystalline, rhenium alloyed, carbide foam, and powder metallurgical tungsten specimens each experienced extensive pore formation after He+ irradiation. Flaking and pore formation occurred on silicon carbide samples. Individual fibers of carbon-carbon velvet specimens sustained erosion and corrugation, in addition to the roughening and rupturing of tungsten coatings after helium ion implantation. {\copyright} 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
 author = {Zenobia, Samuel J. and Radel, Ross F. and Cipiti, Benjamin B. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2009},
 title = {High temperature surface effects of He+ implantation in ICF fusion first wall materials},
 url = {https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-64649103160&doi=10.1016%2fj.jnucmat.2009.02.004&partnerID=40&md5=1c921d3cd36a54c225f6e8bd03571b7a},
 keywords = {Carbon fibers;Coated materials;Coating;Debris;Fiber Debris;First wall materials;First walls;Fluences;Foam;Foams;Fusion reactors;helium;Helium ions;High temperatures;Individual fibers;Inertial confinement fusion;Inertial confinement fusion reactors;Inertial electrostatic confinement devices;Ion bombardment;Ion implantation;Ions;Metallurgy;Multiple materials;Neutron irradiation;Poly-crystalline;Polycrystalline materials;Pore formations;Pore size;Rhenium;Rhenium alloys;Silicon alloys;Silicon carbide;Silk;Single-crystalline;Steady-state irradiations;Surface effects;Tantalum;Tantalum carbide;Transition metals;Tungsten;Tungsten carbide;Tungsten coatings;Tungsten-coated carbons;University of Wisconsin},
 pages = {213--220},
 volume = {389},
 number = {2},
 issn = {00223115},
 journal = {Journal of Nuclear Materials},
 doi = {10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.02.004}
}


@phdthesis{Zenobia.2010,
 author = {Zenobia, Samuel J.},
 year = {2010},
 title = {Effects of Helium Ion Implantation on the Surface Morphology of Tungsten at High Temperature for the First Wall Armor and Divertor Plates of Fusion Reactors},
 school = {{University of Wisconsin-Madison}},
 type = {PhD Thesis}
}


@article{Zenobia.2011,
 author = {Zenobia, Samuel J. and Garrison, Lauren M. and Kulcinski, Gerald L.},
 year = {2011},
 title = {Surface Pore Formation in Helium Implanted Fine-Grain Tungsten and Tungsten Needles as Engineered First Wall and Divertor Plate Materials},
 url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.13182/FST11-A12377},
 pages = {344--348},
 volume = {60},
 number = {1},
 issn = {15361055},
 journal = {Fusion Science and Technology},
 doi = {10.13182/FST11-A12377}
}


@phdthesis{Zhan.2013,
 author = {Zhan, Jimmy},
 year = {2013},
 title = {Simulation and Optimization of an Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Reactor},
 school = {{Queen`s University}},
 type = {Thesis}
}