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["Table1 Characteristics of included studies."]
["Author","Year","Region","Type of study","Inclusion criteria","Exclusion criteria","Diagnositc criteria of GDM","Income level classification","Population in each group","GDM","Morbidity"]
["Jinnan liu (21)",2018,"China","cross-sectional screening study","24th to 28th gestational weeks","Missing information, did not complete OGTT and GCT","50-g 1-h OGCT and a 75-g 2-h OGTT","low",3255,227,0.07]
[{"$nulls":6},"GDM was defined as either fasting PG ≥5.1 mmol/L or 1-h PG ≥10.0 mmol/L or 2-h PG ≥8.5 mmol/L"]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",2740,218,0.08]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",8810,614,0.07]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",2854,205,0.07]
["Andrew Collier(22) ",2017,"UK","cross-sectional screening study","women with a delivery episode, discharged from hospital ","Women delivering at home or in non- hospitals ","coded as gestational diabetes according to files ","low",11305,253,0.02]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",10264,221,0.02]
[{"$nulls":7},"middle",9501,196,0.02]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",8484,173,0.02]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",7736,130,0.02]
["K. Rönö(23)",2019,"Finland","observational cohort study","women aged ≥ 20 years who delivered for the first time ","Participants havd a history of previously diagnosed diabetes mellitus ","one or more pathological glucose value in a standard 75-g 2-h oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) with the following thresholds: fasting plasma glucose ≥ 5.3 mmol/l, 1-h glucose ≥ 10.0 mmol/l, and 2-h glucose ≥ 8.6 mmol/l ","low",745,145,0.19]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",1491,279,0.19]
[{"$nulls":7},"middle",1490,253,0.17]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",1491,242,0.16]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",745,95,0.13]
["L. Song (24)",2017,"China","prospective study","pregnant women aged 18–50 years","participants with a history of diabetes; missing information on educational level or glucose values","75-g 2-h oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) WHO criteria","low",991,167,0.17]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",1737,254,0.15]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",2874,417,0.15]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",1284,167,0.13]
["Subrina Jesmin (18)",2014,"Bangladesh","cross-sectional study","pregnant women, with an average gestation age of 26 weeks","subjects who were not fastng","1-h 50 g OGCT WHO criteria (fasting plasma glucose) ≥7.0 mmol/L or 2-h ≥7.8 mmol/L) and the new ADA criteria (FPG ≥5.3 mmol/L or 2-h ≥8.6 mmol/L OGTT)","low",945,96,0.1]
[]
[]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",702,111,0.16]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",729,153,0.21]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",1071,231,0.22]
["Bin Liu(25) ",2019,"USA","retrospective cohort study ","Pregnant women who delivered a live singleton child and were diagnosed with or without GDM","women with more than one delivery record or still- birth, twins, or multiples were excluded: having preexisting diabetes ","GDM was defined as having at least one visit with GDM as the primary diagnosis with ICD-9 code 648.8 or ICD10 codes, such as O24.415, O24.419, O24.425, O24.429, O24.435, O99.810, O99.814, and O99.815, within 40 weeks prior to the date of child delivery ","low",3434,360,0.1]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",4260,472,0.11]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",3981,442,0.11]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",4483,514,0.11]
["Liwei Chen(26)",2019,"USA","cross-sectional study","women who participated in the 2007 Los Angeles Mommy and Baby (LAMB) study","/","Women with gestational diabetes were identified on the basis of self-reported information","low",2280,195,0.09]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",1236,148,0.12]
[{"$nulls":7},"middle",523,70,0.13]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",685,82,0.12]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",638,68,0.11]
["G. Chodick(27) ",2010,"Israel","retrospective cohort study ","Israeli women aged 15–45 years ","women who had any indication of pre-existing diabetes mellitus, who had received infertility treatments or who were not in the relevant age range (15–50 years old) ","Carpenter & Coustan modification of the National Diabetes Data Group criteria conversion method, based on the presence of two or more of the following values in the 100 g OGTT: fasting serum glucose concentration exceeding 5.3 mmol ⁄ l; glucose concentration 10.0 mmol ⁄ l","low",35257,2190,0.06]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",71505,3991,0.06]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",31523,2076,0.07]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",41362,2633,0.06]
["G. X. Shen(28)",2016,"Canada","prospective cohort study","all women who give birth in hospitals ","Women with a diagnosis of gestational diabetes or any type of diabetes at ≤ 20 weeks of gestation were excluded from the study with pre-existing diabetes ","gestational diabetes was defined as a diagnosis of diabetes (through hospital abstract) at ≥ 21 weeks of gestation or any first-time incident diagnosis of diabetes (through hospital or physician claims data) at ≥ 21 weeks of gestation ","low",10291,4597,0.45]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",82683,2392,0.03]
[{"$nulls":7},"middle",76881,1911,0.02]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",75945,1667,0.02]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",66922,1327,0.02]
["Kirke AB(29)",2014,"Australia","Retrospective cohort study","all pregnancies ","/","Women diagnosed as GDM","low",167,15,0.09]
[{"$nulls":4},"in Bunbury Regional Hospital "]
[{"$nulls":4},"from February 2009 to March 2011"]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",165,8,0.05]
[{"$nulls":7},"middle",259,12,0.05]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",806,28,0.03]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",166,10,0.06]
["Vibeke Anna(30)",2008,"Australia","Retrospective study","all births of >20 weeks’ gestation  at public and private hospitals and home births. ","/","A 75-g oral glucose tolerance test is performed, with a fasting plasma glucose level of >5.5 mmol/l or a 2-h level > 8.0 mmol/l being diagnostic for GDM or 50-g glucose challenge at 26 –28 weeks with 1-h glucose >7.8 mmol/l) ","low",241801,9430,0.04]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",240633,9625,0.04]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",230825,9464,0.04]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",237488,7362,0.03]
["Marion Abouzeid(31) ",2015,"Australia","Retrospective study","women are those giving birth for the first time ","Women who giving birth for the second time or more","GDM status was assigned by the clinician notifying the birth ","low",62578,3040,0.05]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",66934,2800,0.04]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",67120,2913,0.04]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",72128,2975,0.04]
["Abdulbari Bener (32)",2011,"Arab","prospective cohort study","Qatari and other Arab pregnant women","Women with diabetes before pregnancy or incomplete questionnaires","75-g 2-h OGTT WHO criteria","low",131,17,0.13]
[{"$nulls":7},"lower middle",614,117,0.19]
[{"$nulls":7},"middle",335,57,0.17]
[{"$nulls":7},"upper middle",349,51,0.15]
[{"$nulls":7},"high",169,20,0.12]
["Note: A diagnosis of GDM was made according to the WHO 2013 diagnostic criteria (fasting plasma glucose of 5.1-6.9 mmol/l, or, one-hour plasma glucose of ≥ 10.0 mmol/l or two-hour plasma glucose of 8.5-11.0 mmol)"]